Global Slavery Index
Global Slavery Index / COuntry Study

Modern slavery in Bangladesh

Estimated number living in modern slavery:

1,162,000 (7.1

per thousand)

Vulnerability:

58

/100

Government response rating:

49

/100

Population:

164,689,000

GDP per capita (PPP):

5,995

(current international $)

Scroll

Overview

Bangladesh is outperforming higher-income neighbours in its efforts to address modern slavery.1 The government has among the strongest responses to modern slavery within Asia and the Pacific, and has taken steps to improve its response since the 2018 Global Slavery Index (GSI), for example, through ratifying the Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930, and launching national action plans to end child marriage2 and human trafficking.3 However, significant gaps remain in efforts to identify and support survivors, and to ensure criminal proceedings are trauma-informed and timely. Vulnerability to modern slavery is largely driven by discrimination against minority groups, displacement, violence, and limited monitoring and enforcement of labour laws. The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated vulnerability in high-risk sectors such as garments.

Prevalence

The 2023 GSI estimates that 1.2 million people were in living in modern slavery in Bangladesh on any given day in 2021, a prevalence of 7.1 people in modern slavery per every thousand people in the country. Bangladesh is among countries with the highest prevalence of modern slavery within Asia and the Pacific (nine out of 27), and ranks 56th out of 160 countries globally. In terms of the estimated total number of people in modern slavery, Bangladesh falls within the top 10 countries globally.

Forced labour

Forced labour exploitation

Forced labour is reported in fish processing, ship breaking, and the production of aluminium, bricks, tea, and garments.4 Garment sector workers are particularly at risk: while the 2013 Rana Plaza building collapse5 led to some reform of labour laws6 and improvements in the formal sector,7 reports of mistreatment remain widespread.8 Female workers in particular continue to face threats, intimidation,9 harassment, and sexual violence at work.10 Conditions worsened during the pandemic with an increase in forced labour reported.11 A 2022 study of workers in the informal ready-made garments sector, where government oversight is severely limited, found that 86 per cent of workers met the criteria for forced labour, with women and internal migrants disproportionately affected.12

Children are exploited in the production and transport of drugs, forced begging, and forced labour in brick kilns, domestic work, and fish drying.13 In a 2022 study on the worst forms of child labour in eight low-cost settlements across Bangladesh’s capital city of Dhaka, over two thirds of 764 children surveyed reported experiencing abuse or exploitation in the workplace, including threats, and verbal, physical, and sexual abuse, indicating a situation of modern slavery.14

Trafficking for forced labour is widely reported to affect Rohingya refugees who have fled persecution in Myanmar.15 Rohingya women and girls are particularly at risk of being trafficked from refugee camps into fish processing and domestic labour, often under false offers of work in garment factories.16 Meanwhile, men are reportedly targeted for forced labour in agriculture and construction,17 while boys are forced to work as shop-hands, fisherman, construction workers, and rickshaw pullers.18

Bangladeshi citizens are also trafficked overseas to countries in Asia,19 Africa,20 and the Gulf.21 They are reportedly exploited in debt bondage as a result of loans taken on to pay recruitment fees and travel costs. These loans are owed to both legal recruitment agencies and unlicensed brokers in Bangladesh, who may convey false or misleading information about the job.22

Forced commercial sexual exploitation of adults

Women and girls are exploited in legal and illegal sex establishments, hotels, and households across Bangladesh, lured with fraudulent promises of work and trapped by fake debts.23 A 2022 study found that sex traffickers in Bangladesh perpetrated abuse by putting women and girls in situations where they lacked power, and by building trusting relationships to deceive them with false promises.24 Spouses and family members were also found to abuse the trust placed in them to force women into sex work.25

Women and girls are similarly at risk of being trafficked abroad to India, Pakistan, and Gulf countries for sexual exploitation.26 For example, in mid-2020, Bangladeshi police arrested three men who allegedly trafficked hundreds of women aged between 18 and 25 to Dubai for sexual exploitation, after falsely offering work as housekeepers and dancers in hotels.27

Commercial sexual exploitation of children

Thousands of girls are reportedly trafficked for sexual exploitation in Bangladeshi sex establishments, often remaining trapped by fake debts imposed upon them by the madams.28 Some girls are raised and exploited in sex establishments after their mothers were also forced into commercial sexual exploitation.29 Corrupt police officers reportedly accept bribes to allow exploitation of, or help obtain false proof-of-age documents for, victims under the age of 18. Traffickers are similarly reported to forge identity documents to transport underage children overseas.30 Under false promises of employment, Bangladeshi and Rohingya girls are trafficked to nearby countries such as India,31 Nepal, and Malaysia,32 including by traffickers operating on social media.33 Civil society organisations report that boys are also trafficked into commercial sexual exploitation in Bangladesh, yet information is scarce.34

Forced marriage

Over the last fifty years, the rate of child marriage among girls has fallen in Bangladesh from more than 90 per cent to just over 50 per cent in 2020; yet Bangladesh still has some of the highest rates of child marriage in the world.35 According to a 2020 UNICEF report, there are 38 million women and girls in Bangladesh who were married as children.36 While boys are also affected, recent data are limited.37 Child marriage is often linked to trafficking for sexual exploitation: half of all respondents in a 2019 study of Bangladeshi sex establishments had been married as children, and considered that the marriage led to their experience of sexual exploitation. Girls married as young as 11 were either trafficked after fleeing the marriage or sold directly by their spouse.38 Adult women are also vulnerable to forced marriage: reports indicate that women from ethnic minority groups are targeted for bride trafficking to China,39 while Rohingya women are trafficked from Cox’s Bazar to Malaysia for forced marriage.40

Vulnerability

Governance issues Lack of basic needs Inequality Disenfranchised groups Effects of conflict Overall weighted average
52/100 44/100 38/100 81/100 53/100 58/100

Bangladesh is among the most vulnerable countries to modern slavery in the Asia Pacific region. Vulnerability is largely driven by discrimination towards minority groups, displacement, violence, and limited monitoring and enforcement of labour laws.

The near one million Rohingya seeking refuge in the Cox’s Bazar region, after fleeing conflict and persecution in Myanmar, are particularly vulnerable.41 Humanitarian disasters have fuelled further displacement for this population,42 while tensions have risen among host communities due to strained resources.43 The government has also limited Rohingyas’ access to education,44 the Internet,45 and other freedoms.46 These difficulties contribute to their risk of modern slavery: traffickers reportedly lure Rohingya with false offers of work or marriage.47 In addition, the risk of child marriage – practiced in part due to high value placed on female purity – has increased amid displacement and the lack of regulation in refugee camps.48

The LGBTQI+ community also face legal and societal discrimination.49 Deep-seated patriarchal norms and the criminalisation of same-sex relations50 expose LGBTQI+ individuals to risk of “corrective” forced marriages.51 Patriarchal norms also fuel child marriage among girls, as either a form of protection against pervasive – and often unchecked52– sexual violence,53 or as a means to preserve female purity and family honour.54 Families affected by poverty may seek to marry daughters off before their dowry becomes more expensive with age;55 child marriage is more common in rural areas and among girls living in poverty without access to secondary education,56 and rates have reportedly risen during the pandemic.57 Further, parents may view child marriage as a means to reduce household costs during extreme weather events,58 which significantly impact Bangladesh.59 Climate-induced migration also spurs vulnerability: traffickers have reportedly targeted Bangladeshis migrating to India in search of income, after flooding and cyclones damaged their agricultural land in the Sundarbans.60

Limited monitoring and enforcement of labour laws exposes workers to labour exploitation, particularly in the informal sector.61 In the ready-made garments sector, numerous sub-contracting factories operate with minimal oversight, and a culture of impunity enables persistent abuses by management.62 In the aftermath of the pandemic, thousands of workers were fired or furloughed,63 and many more experienced wage theft,64 causing extreme financial hardship65 and increased vulnerability to forced labour, with informal workers, migrants, and women particularly at risk.66

Similar risks are documented in tea estates, where piece rates force workers to enlist the help of their families to meet quotas (around 23 kilograms of tea leaves per day) or risk having their pay cut.67 Tea workers are subject to low wages, excessive hours, unsanitary accommodation, and fear of punishment.68 Exploitation within tea estates often spans generations and is fuelled by persistent poverty, racism, and social inequality.69 Women comprise the majority of tea leaf pickers and are further disadvantaged by gender discrimination and lack of access to childcare.70

Despite significant progress to reduce poverty in recent decades,71 over 20 per cent of the nation still lives below the poverty line.72 Lack of income opportunities leads many Bangladeshis to migrate abroad where they are vulnerable to exploitation by sub-agents.73 In the wake of COVID-19, migrants who were forced to return were at risk of debt bondage, and often experienced wage withholding.74 Children also faced greater risks during the pandemic, with some – particularly boys – taking up hazardous work or moving from already risky to even more dangerous jobs amid an 18-month long school closure.75

Government response

Survivors of slavery are identified and supported Criminal justice mechanisms National and regional level coordination Risk factors are addressed Government and business supply chains Total
41/100 69/100 50/100 50/100 0/100 49/100

Bangladesh had among the strongest responses to modern slavery in the region, reflecting a range of legislative measures to combat modern slavery. However, efforts to enforce legislation were severely limited, as were efforts to identify and support survivors.

While the government has taken some action to improve victim identification, including through training for police and immigration officials, training is not regular,76 and authorities reportedly detained some foreign victims for immigration violations without screening for indicators of trafficking.77 While standard operating procedures to identify victims are available for Ministry of Home Affairs officials,78 there are no national guidelines for all first responders, and there is no national referral mechanism to ensure victims are referred to services. Further, government-supported services are not accessible for male and foreign victims, and survivors are reportedly held in shelters against their will.79

Bangladesh has a relatively strong legislative framework to combat modern slavery. The government acceded to the 2000 UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol in 2019, and ratified the Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 in early 2022.80 Bangladesh also criminalises most forms of modern slavery in line with international standards, including human trafficking under the 2012 Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking Act (PSHTA).81 However, lack of enforcement undermines the government’s criminal justice response. The court system has been overwhelmed, with nearly 5,800 human trafficking cases pending before the courts as of mid-2022.82 While the government has established seven special tribunals to accelerate proceedings,83 many survivors reportedly lack a sufficient understanding of the court process and the financial means necessary to pursue legal actions,84 limiting access to justice and compensation.

Limited access to justice is compounded by a lack of systematic training for the prosecution and judiciary,85 with judicial punishments for crimes tried by mobile courts reportedly insufficient,86 and conviction rates low.87 Moreover, there is evidence victims of trafficking have been punished for crimes committed while under the control of criminals,88 despite protection from criminalisation being enshrined under article 37 of the PSHTA.89 The High Court has not taken on trafficking claims filed by Rohingya,90 who are not protected by legislation in Bangladesh, and there are reports of official complicity in modern slavery cases, including among diplomatic staff.91

Several other gaps in the legislative framework exist. Forced marriage is not explicitly criminalised within national legislation, although article 366 of the Penal Code prohibits the abduction of a woman knowing she will be forced to marry,92 and while the 2017 Child Marriage Restraint Act criminalises child marriage, there are exceptions to the minimum age of 18 in “special circumstances.”93 This may lead to marriage to protect family honour in the case of rape or pregnancy.94 Promisingly in 2018, the government launched the National Plan of Action to End Child Marriage 2018-203095 and the National Plan of Action for Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking 2018-2022 (NAP),96 which has been extended to 2025.97 While 95 per cent of activities under the NAP are reportedly covered by funding for the Sustainable Development Goals,98 NGOs cite funding gaps in practice.99

Several other risk factors remain unaddressed. No labour inspections are conducted in the informal sector,100 despite accounting for 85 per cent of the total workforce,101 and while workers covered by the Labour Act have the right to join trade unions and engage in collective bargaining, workers in export processing zones are excluded.102 Rights to unionise have deteriorated in recent years,103 and protests are met with indiscriminate police violence.104 Further, although charging migrant workers unlawfully high recruitment fees is prohibited,105 certain fixed rate fees are permitted and, in practice, fees are substantially higher, increasing risk of debt bondage among migrants.106 The government has committed to addressing these deceptive recruitment practices, though action is yet to be taken.107 Concerningly, Bangladesh takes no action to address modern slavery in supply chains.

Recommendations

Survivors identified and supported

  • Ensure survivor support services, including shelters, crisis support centres, and community-based protection, cover all populations – including males and migrants – and ensure no victims are detained in shelters against their will.

  • Deliver victim identification training at regular intervals for all frontline regulatory workers, implement national guidelines for first responders to identify and screen victims, and establish a national referral mechanism to support referral of victims to services.

Criminal justice mechanisms

  • Focus resources on expediating the court process for human trafficking cases, ensuring judicial punishments are proportionate, including via regular training for the judiciary and prosecution.

  • Remove all legal loopholes that allow marriage under the age of 18 to occur, criminalise forced marriage in line with international standards, and provide civil protections that allow survivors to choose which solution best suits their needs.

  • Tackle underlying drivers of forced marriage, including engaging with communities to subvert harmful patriarchal norms and amending gender discriminatory legislation.

National and regional level coordination 

  • Pursue and strengthen bilateral and multilateral labour agreements with key receiving countries, including the Gulf States, to protect migrant workers and cooperate with other sending countries to advocate for common standards for the protection of workers, in consultation with migrant workers, survivors, and civil society.

Risk factors are addressed

  • Work with international organisations such as UNHCR to implement policies and procedures to grant asylum and refugee status to those in need and equip humanitarian practitioners to respond to modern slavery risks in crisis settings by rolling out the Global Protection Cluster’s Introductory Guide to Anti-Trafficking Action in Internal Displacement Contexts.108

  • Ensure the right to freedom of association and collective bargaining for all, and regularly conduct labour inspections, including in the informal sector. Introduce and enforce laws to prohibit charging of recruitment fees to employees and register and monitor local recruitment agencies for deceptive practices.

  • Ensure all reports of official complicity in modern slavery cases are thoroughly investigated and prosecuted where necessary.

Government and business supply chains

  • Introduce mandatory human rights due diligence to stop government and businesses from sourcing goods or services linked to modern slavery.

Endnotes

1The World Bank 2021, GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) ‐ East Asia & Pacific, South Asia. Available from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=Z4‐8S&most_recent_value_desc=true. [16 August 2022].
2United Nations Children’s Fund 2018, ‘Plan of Action launched to eliminate child marriage in Bangladesh’, 14 August. Available From: https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/en/press‐releases/plan‐action‐launched‐eliminate‐child‐marriage‐bangladesh#:~:text=The%20goal%20of%20the%20NPA,eliminate%20child%20marriage%20by%202041. [18 March 2022].
3Hasan, K 2018, ‘Five year NPA for fighting human trafficking launched’, Dhaka Tribune, 3 December. Available From: https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/event/2018/12/03/five‐year‐npa‐for‐fighting‐human‐traffickinglaunched. [21 January 2021].
4Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022]; Idris, I 2018, Modern slavery within the tea industry in Bangladesh, K4D Helpdesk Report, Institute of Development Studies, p. 5. Available from: https://gsdrc.org/wp‐content/uploads/2018/03/273‐Modern‐Slavery‐within‐the‐Tea‐Industry‐in‐Bangladesh.pdf. [9 November 2020]; Mamun, S 2021, ‘Brick kiln workers or slaves?’, Dhaka Tribune, 12 February. Available From: https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2021/02/12/brick‐kiln‐workers‐or‐slaves. [15 September 2022]; Brown, D, Boyd, DS & Parsons, L 2019, ‘Modern slavery, environmental degradation and climate change: Fisheries, field, forests and factories’, Journal of Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space, vol. 4, no. 2. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/2514848619887156. [15 September 2022].
5 Thapa, T 2018, ‘Remember Rana Plaza’, Human Rights Watch, 24 April. Available From: https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/04/24/remember‐rana‐plaza. [20 November 2020].
6 Human Rights Watch 2015, “Whoever Raises their Head Suffers the Most”: Workers’ Rights in Bangladesh’s Garment Factories. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/04/22/whoever‐raises‐their‐head‐suffers‐most/workers‐rights‐bangladeshs‐garment#_ftn21. [16 December 2020].
7 NORC at the University of Chicago, UK aid & Global Fund to End Modern Slavery 2021, Hidden, Unprotected & Vulnerable: Supporting Vulnerable Informal RMG Workers in Bangladesh. Available from: https://respect.international/wp‐content/uploads/2021/06/Hidden‐Unprotected‐and‐Vulnerable‐Supporting‐Informal‐RMG‐Workers‐in‐Bangladesh‐brief.pdf. [30 March 2023].
8 Chua, JM 2022, ‘3 Dead, 40 Injured in Bangladesh Footwear Factory Fire’, Sourcing Journal, 23 February. Available From: https://sourcingjournal.com/footwear/footwear‐supply‐chain/factory‐fire‐kills‐3‐workers‐bangladesh‐uniworld‐footwear‐fashion‐foowear‐330084/. [15 March 2022]; 2021, ‘Bangladesh: Factory fires highlight need for improvements in factory safety standards’, Business & Human Rights Resource Centre, 12 July. Available From: https://www.business‐humanrights.org/en/latest‐news/bangladesh‐factory‐fires‐highlight‐need‐for‐improvements‐in‐factory‐safety‐standards‐2/?mc_cid=517ad7ba9f&mc_eid=a18fa05e7c. [17 March 2022]; International Trade Union Confederation 2022, We need a better Bangladesh: Violations of workers’ rights in the ready‐made garment, shipbreaking and leather sectors, pp. 7‐10. Available from: https://www.ituc‐csi.org/we‐need‐a‐better‐bangladesh‐report. [14 September 2022].
9 Committee on Foreign Relations 2020, Seven Years After Rana Plaza, Significant Challenges Remain: A Minority Staff Report Prepared for the Use of the Committee on Foreign Relations United States Senate, One Hundred Sixteenth Congress, Second Session, pp. 2‐3 & 10. Available from: https://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Final%20Bangladesh%20%20Report‐‐3.2.2020.pdf. [20 November 2020].
10 ActionAid 2019, ActionAid Briefing Paper: Sexual harassment and violence against garment workers in Bangladesh. Available from: https://actionaid.org/sites/default/files/publications/ActionAid%20briefing%20paper%20on%20Bangladesh%20garment%20workers%20FINAL.pdf. [20 November 2020].
11 Islam, MA, Abbott, P, Haque, S, Gooch, F & Akhter, S 2022, The impact of Covid‐19 on women workers in the Bangladesh garment industry, Modern Slavery & Human Rights Policy & Evidence Centre, pp. 6‐7. Available from: https://modernslaverypec.org/assets/downloads/Women‐Bangladesh‐garment‐industry‐report‐final‐smaller.pdf. [15 September 2022].
12Global Fund to End Modern Slavery 2022, Forced Labor Among Informal Apparel Workers in Apparel Hubs of Bangladesh: A Prevalence Estimation Report. Available from: https://www.gfems.org/wp‐content/uploads/2022/12/22.12.14_Informal_Apparel‐Prevalence‐Brief.pdf. [30 March 2023].
13 See for example: Bureau of International Labor Affairs 2019, Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Bangladesh, United States Department of Labor, p. 2. Available from: https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2019/Bangladesh.pdf. [23 November 2020]; Mamun, S 2021, ‘Brick kiln workers or slaves?’, Dhaka Tribune, 12 February. Available From: https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2021/02/12/brick‐kiln‐workers‐or‐slaves. [15 September 2022].
14Maksud, AKM, Reaz Hossain, K & Arulanantham, A 2022, Mapping of Slums and Identifying Children Engaged in Worst Forms of Child Labour Living in Slums and Working in Neighbourhood Areas, Institute of Development Studies, pp. v‐vii. Available from: https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/17362/CLARISSA%20Dhaka%20Slum%20Survey%20Report.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. [19 August 2022].pp. 25 & 117
15 International Organization for Migration 2019, IOM Case Data Analysis: Human Trafficking, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, pp. 1‐5. Available from: https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/documents/iom_human_trafficking_case_data_analysis_‐_rohingya_2.pdf. [27 January 2021]; Freedom Collaborative 2022, Mapping Rohingya Movement: Collected Data on the Trafficking Routes of a Persecuted Population, p. 8. Available from: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5bd9f8a7710699aaf0e28fc6/t/62391e878f055e59f227ca2d/1647910548550/Mapping+Rohingya+Movement_FINAL.pdf. [19 September 2022].
16Bureau of International Labor Affairs 2019, Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Bangladesh, United States Department of Labor, p. 2. Available from: https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2019/Bangladesh.pdf. [23 November 2020]; Ferrie, J 2018, ‘U.N. says Rohingya refugee girls sold into forced labor in Bangladesh’, Reuters, 17 October. Available From: https://www.reuters.com/article/us‐bangladesh‐refugees‐trafficking‐idUSKCN1MR15Z. [14 September 2022].
17International Organization for Migration 2019, IOM Case Data Analysis: Human Trafficking, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, pp. 1‐5. Available from: https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/documents/iom_human_trafficking_case_data_analysis_‐_rohingya_2.pdf. [27 January 2021].
18Bureau of International Labor Affairs 2019, Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Bangladesh, United States Department of Labor, p. 2. Available from: https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2019/Bangladesh.pdf. [23 November 2020].
19 Palma, P & Islam, R 2020, ‘Trafficking Victims: Jail straightaway, not rehabilitation’, The Daily Star, 2 September. Available From: https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/trafficking‐victims‐jail‐straightaway‐not‐rehabilitation‐1954405. [20 November 2020]; 2020, ‘Three held in Bangladesh for trafficking workers to Brunei’, The Star, 28 September. Available From: https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus‐news/2020/09/28/three‐held‐in‐bangladesh‐for‐trafficking‐workers‐to‐brunei. [22 February 2021]; 2020, ‘Bangladeshi’s tricked into forced labour in Cambodia’, Khmer Times, 9 March. Available From: https://www.khmertimeskh.com/699672/bangladeshis‐tricked‐into‐forced‐labour‐in‐cambodia/. [16 September 2022].
20Bhuyan, MOU 2021, ‘4 Bangladeshis trafficked in Togo rescued after 18 months’, Business Insider, 4 April. Available From: https://www.businessinsiderbd.com/national/news/4423/4‐bangladeshis‐trafficked‐in‐togo‐rescued‐after‐18‐months?fbclid=IwAR2wnn8lR3IZS9dqEOTFT9_UrqmvtjhNO7oLJ9zIixOdQn7rhX1di6OOGKw. [17 March 2022]; 2021, ‘How Bangladeshis are lured into slavery in Libya’, BBC News, 8 December. Available From: https://www.bbc.com/news/world‐africa‐59528818. [16 September 2022].
212020, ‘Details of bribes paid by Bangladeshi MP’, Arab Times, 13 July. Available From: https://www.arabtimesonline.com/news/details‐of‐bribes‐paid‐by‐bangladeshi‐mp/. [14 September 2022]; 2020, ‘Kuwait court delivers verdict in Papul’s case 28 January’, The Business Standard, 27 November. Available From: https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/crime/kuwait‐court‐delivers‐verdict‐papuls‐case‐28‐january‐164056. [14 September 2022]; Azad, A 2019, ‘Recruitment of Migrant Workers in Bangladesh: Elements of Human Trafficking for Labor Exploitation’, Journal of Human Trafficking, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 130‐150. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/23322705.2017.1422091. [17 December 2020].
22Azad, A 2019, ‘Recruitment of Migrant Workers in Bangladesh: Elements of Human Trafficking for Labor Exploitation’, Journal of Human Trafficking, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 130‐150. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/23322705.2017.1422091. [17 December 2020]; Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2020, Trafficking in Persons report: Bangladesh country narrative, United States Department of State, p. 97. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2020/06/2020‐TIP‐Report‐Complete‐062420‐FINAL.pdf. [23 November 2020].
23 Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022]; Huda, MN, Hossain, SZ, Dune, TM, Amanullah, ASM & Renzaho, AMN 2022, ‘The Involvement of Bangladeshi Girls and Women in Sex Work: Sex Trafficking, Victimhood, and Agency’, Int J Environ Res Public Health, vol. 19, no. 12, p. 7458. DOI:10.3390/ijerph19127458. [15 September 2022].
24Huda, MN, Hossain, SZ, Dune, TM, Amanullah, ASM & Renzaho, AMN 2022, ‘The Involvement of Bangladeshi Girls and Women in Sex Work: Sex Trafficking, Victimhood, and Agency’, Int J Environ Res Public Health, vol. 19, no. 12, p. 7458. DOI:10.3390/ijerph19127458. [15 September 2022].
25 As above
262022, ‘Int’l human trafficking racket: Over 200 women from Bangladesh, Myanmar trafficked’, The Business Standard, 2 March. Available From: https://www.tbsnews.net/world/south‐asia/intl‐human‐trafficking‐racket‐over‐200‐women‐bangladesh‐myanmar‐trafficked‐378499. [15 September 2022]; 2021, ‘Woman tricks traffickers in daring bid to rescue daughter’, Dhaka Tribune, 17 August Available From: https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/crime/2021/08/17/woman‐tricks‐traffickers‐in‐daring‐bid‐to‐rescue‐daughter. [15 September 2022]; 2022, ‘Bangladeshi woman confined, tortured in KSA; case filed’, The Business Standard, 24 May. Available From: https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/bangladeshi‐woman‐confined‐tortured‐ksa‐case‐filed‐426002. [16 September 2022]; Deshpande, A 2021, ‘Investigation reveals mass trafficking of women from Bangladesh for flesh trade’, The Hindu, 7 October. Available From: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/investigation‐reveals‐mass‐trafficking‐of‐women‐from‐bangladesh‐for‐flesh‐trade/article36870775.ece. [15 September 2022]; Murtaja, G 2022, ‘A village on the Bangladesh‐India border offers glimpses into human trafficking’, bdnews, 19 June. Available From: https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/a‐village‐on‐the‐bangladesh‐india‐border‐offers‐glimpses‐into‐human‐trafficking. [21 September 2022].
27 2020, ‘Bangladesh arrests three over Dubai Sex trafficking operation’, Eastern Eye, 15 July. Available From: https://www.easterneye.biz/bangladesh‐arrests‐three‐over‐dubai‐sex‐trafficking‐operation/. [20 November 2020].
28Redfern, C 2019, ‘The living hell of young girls enslaved in Bangladesh’s Brothels’, The Guardian, 7 July. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/global‐development/2019/jul/06/living‐hell‐of‐bangladesh‐brothels‐sex‐trafficking. [20 March 2020].
29Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/bangladesh/#:~:text=The%20government%20identified%201%2C138%20potential,migrants%20in%20the%20overall%20number. [14 September 2022].
30Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022].
31 2022, ‘Six human traffickers nabbed, two victims from Bangladesh rescued’, The New Indian Express, 23 July. Available From: https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2022/jul/23/six‐human‐traffickers‐nabbed‐two‐victims‐from‐bangladesh‐rescued‐2479749.html. [15 September 2022].
32 Bureau of International Labor Affairs 2019, Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Bangladesh, United States Department of Labor, p. 2. Available from: https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2019/Bangladesh.pdf. [23 November 2020]; 2019, ‘Rohingya girls rescued from traffickers in Bangladesh’, Al Jazeera, 12 May. Available From: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/12/rohingya‐girls‐rescued‐from‐traffickers‐in‐bangladesh. [16 December 2020].
33 2021, ‘Bangladesh to monitor TikTok after girls lured by traffickers’, Al Jazeera, 10 June. Available From: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/10/bangladesh‐tiktok‐scanner‐sex‐traffickers‐lure‐girls. [17 March 2022].
34McKillop, M 2022, Bangladesh Country Overview: A report on the scale, scope and context of the sexual exploitation of children, ECPAT International, p. 6. Available from: https://ecpat.org/wp‐content/uploads/2022/08/ECO_BANGLADESH_2022Aug_Final.pdf. [21 September 2022]; Salish Kendra, A 2021, Progress on implementation of child focused UPR recommendations: A mid‐term assessment by stakeholders, Child Rights Advocacy Coalition in Bangladesh, p. 40. Available from: https://drive.google.com/file/d/12zvQ9_Pkb_gaOA8SCwuofBAYnlT_eYf8/view. [21 September 2022].
35Rate of child marriage is reported as a percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married before the age of 18. United Nations Children’s Fund 2020, Ending Child Marriage: A profile of progress in Bangladesh, pp. 21, 7. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/media/4526/file/Bangladesh%20Child%20Marriage%20report%202020.pdf.pdf. [23 November 2020].
36 As above, p. 5
37 National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT) & ICF 2020, Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2017‐18, p. 46. Available from: https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR344/FR344.pdf. [19 August 2022].
38 Redfern, C 2019, ‘Bangladesh’s Child Marriage Problem Is the World’s Human Trafficking Crisis’, Foreign Policy, 8 November. Available From: https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/08/bangladesh‐child‐marriage‐human‐trafficking‐crisis/. [20 November 2020].
39 Chowdhury, S 2018, ‘Rackets active in bride trafficking to China’, New Age, 18 October. Available From: https://www.newagebd.net/article/53442/rackets‐active‐in‐bride‐trafficking‐to‐china. [16 December 2020]; Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/bangladesh/#:~:text=The%20government%20identified%201%2C138%20potential,migrants%20in%20the%20overall%20number. [14 September 2022].
40 Ahmed, K 2019, ‘Rohingya women, girls being trafficked to Malaysia for marriage’, Al Jazeera, 8 May. Available From: https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2019/5/8/rohingya‐women‐girls‐being‐trafficked‐to‐malaysia‐for‐marriage [16 December 2020].
41United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 2019, Rohingya Emergency. Available from: https://www.unhcr.org/rohingya‐emergency.html [17 December 2020]; Asrar, S 2017, ‘Rohingya crisis explained in maps’, Al Jazeera, 28 October. Available From: http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2017/09/rohingya‐crisis‐explained‐maps‐170910140906580.html. [30 January 2018]; United Nations Refugee Agency 2022, ‘Rohingya Refugee Crisis Explained’, 13 July. Available From: https://www.unrefugees.org/news/rohingya‐refugee‐crisis‐explained/#:~:text=Approximately%20919%2C000%20Rohingya%20refugees%20are,region%20arrived%20in%20September%202017. [19 August 2022]; 2019, ‘Human Trafficking Takes Centre Stage in Bangladesh’, International Organization for Migration, 24 May. Available From: https://www.iom.int/news/human‐trafficking‐takes‐centre‐stage‐bangladesh. [15 September 2022].
422019, ‘Humanitarian Agencies Assist Thousands as Monsoon Rains Hit Rohingya Camps and Host Community’, International Organization for Migration, 12 September. Available From: https://www.iom.int/news/humanitarian‐agencies‐assist‐thousands‐monsoon‐rains‐hit‐rohingya‐camps‐and‐host‐community. [18 March 2022]; Ratcliffe, R 2022, ‘Thousands homeless as fire sweeps through Rohingya refugee camp’, The Guardian, 10 January. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/09/fire‐sweeps‐through‐coxs‐bazar‐rohingya‐refugee‐camp‐in‐bangladesh. [18 March 2022]; Hozumi, T 2021, ‘Devastating fire displaces thousands in Rohingya refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh: Statement by UNICEF Representative in Bangladesh, Tomoo Hozumi’, United Nations Children’s Fund, 22 March. Available From: https://www.unicef.org/press‐releases/devastating‐fire‐displaces‐thousands‐rohingya‐refugee‐camps‐coxs‐bazar‐bangladesh. [18 March 2022].
43 Ansar, A & Kahled, AFM 2021, ‘From solidarity to resistance: host communities’ evolving response to the Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh’, Journal of International Humanitarian Action, vol. 6, no. 16, pp. 1‐15. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018‐021‐00104‐9. [18 March 2022]; Chowdhury, J 2019, ‘Bangladesh, growing tired of hosting Rohingya refugees, puts new squeeze on the teeming camps’, The Washington Post, 11 September. Available From: https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/bangladesh‐growing‐tired‐of‐hosting‐rohingya‐refugees‐puts‐new‐squeeze‐on‐a‐displaced‐minority/2019/09/10/4488cfb4‐cfd5‐11e9‐a620‐0a91656d7db6_story.html. [18 March 2022]; United Nations Development Programme 2018, Impacts of the Rohingya Refugee Influx on Host Communities, pp. 106‐109. Available from: https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/2019/08/UNDP_Impacts‐of‐the‐Rohingya‐Refugee‐Influx‐on‐Host‐Communities_Nov2018.pdf. [18 March 2022].
44 Shohel, MMC 2022, ‘Education in emergencies: challenges of providing education for Rohingya children living in refugee camps in Bangladesh’, Education Inquiry, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 104‐126. DOI:10.1080/20004508.2020.1823121. [18 March 2022]; Human Rights Watch 2021, World Report: Bangladesh. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world‐report/2021/country‐chapters/bangladesh. [17 March 2022].
45 Chowdhury, J 2019, ‘Bangladesh, growing tired of hosting Rohingya refugees, puts new squeeze on the teeming camps’, The Washington Post, 11 September. Available From: https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/bangladesh‐growing‐tired‐of‐hosting‐rohingya‐refugees‐puts‐new‐squeeze‐on‐a‐displaced‐minority/2019/09/10/4488cfb4‐cfd5‐11e9‐a620‐0a91656d7db6_story.html. [18 March 2022]; 2019, ‘Bangladesh: Internet Blackout on Rohingya Refugees’, Human Rights Watch, 13 September. Available From: https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/13/bangladesh‐internet‐blackout‐rohingya‐refugees. [18 March 2022].
46Human Rights Watch 2021, World Report: Bangladesh. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world‐report/2021/country‐chapters/bangladesh. [17 March 2022]; Freedom House 2022, Freedom in the World: Bangladesh. Available from: https://freedomhouse.org/country/bangladesh/freedom‐world/2022. [17 March 2022].
47 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 2019, Rohingya Emergency. Available from: https://www.unhcr.org/rohingya‐emergency.html [17 December 2020]; Donovan, L 2019, ‘Taking on traffickers at the world’s largest refugee site’, UNHCR, 2 December. Available From: https://www.unhcr.org/en‐au/news/stories/2019/12/5ddbafa04/taking‐traffickers‐worlds‐largest‐refugee‐site.html. [18 March 2022].
48Melnikas, A, Ainul, S, Ehsan, I, Haque, E & Amin, S 2020, ‘Child marriage practices among the Rohingya in Bangladesh’, Conflict and Health, vol. 14, no. 28. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031‐020‐00274‐0. [18 December 2020]; Gausman, J, Huda, FA, Othman, A, Al Atoom, M, Shaheen, A, Hamad, I, Dabobe, M, Mahmood, HR, Ibnat, R & Langer, A 2022, ‘Girl child marriage and the social context of displacement: a qualitative comparative exploration of Syrian refugees in Jordan and Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh’, BMC Public Health, vol. 22, no. 2417, pp. 1‐12. Available from: https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889‐022‐14832‐z. [12 January 2023].
49 Equaldex 2020, LGBT Rights in Bangladesh. Available from: https://www.equaldex.com/region/bangladesh. [19 August 2022]; Karim, N 2019, ‘Bangladesh charges eight over murder of LGBT+ activists’, Reuters, 13 May. Available From: https://www.reuters.com/article/us‐bangladesh‐lgbt‐murder‐idUSKCN1SJ1K9. [19 August 2022].
50Penal Code, 1860 (Bangladesh) art 377
51See for example: Human Rights Watch 2018, ‘Bangladesh: Transgender Men Fear for Their Safety’, January 19. Available From: https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/01/19/bangladesh‐transgender‐men‐fear‐their‐safety. [19 August 2022]; International Republican Institute 2021, Understanding the Lives of Bangladesh’s LGBTI Community, pp. 6‐7. Available from: https://www.iri.org/resources/iri‐conducts‐innovative‐mixed‐method‐lgbti‐study‐in‐bangladesh/. [19 August 2022]; Women’s Refugee Commission 2021, Addressing Sexual Violence against Men, Boys, and LGBTQ+ Refugees: Learnings from Pilot Projects in Bangladesh, Kenya, and Italy/Bulgaria, pp. 8‐12. Available from: http://www.womensrefugeecommission.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/07/Addressing‐Sexual‐Violence‐against‐Men‐Boys‐LGBTQ‐Refugees‐Learnings‐Pilot‐Projects.pdf. [14 September 2022].
52 Karim, N 2020, ‘Bangladeshi protestors say death penalty not the answer to rise in rape’, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 21 October. Available From: https://news.trust.org/item/20201021170043‐rfx75. [23 November 2020]; Mahmud, F 2020, ‘Bangladesh mulls death penalty for rapists as protests rage’, Al Jazeera, 11 October. Available From: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/11/protests‐against‐rape‐erupt‐in‐bangladesh. [23 November 2020].
53 Girls Not Brides 2019, Bangladesh. Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child‐marriage/bangladesh/. [18 December 2020].
54 As above ; United Nations Children’s Fund & United Nations Population Fund 2019, Child Marriage in South Asia: An Evidence Review, p. 21. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/rosa/media/4251/file/Child%20Marriage%20Evidence%20Review_Web.pdf. [18 December 2020]; Ferdous, S, Saha, P & Yeasmin, F 2019, Preventing Child, Early, and Forced Marriage in Bangladesh: Understanding Socio‐Economic Drivers and Legislative Gaps, Oxfam, p. 5. Available from: https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/620881/rr‐bangladesh‐child‐early‐forced‐marriage‐171019‐en.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. [19 August 2022].
55Girls Not Brides 2019, Bangladesh. Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child‐marriage/bangladesh/. [18 December 2020].
56 United Nations Children’s Fund 2020, Ending Child Marriage: A profile of progress in Bangladesh, p. 8. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/media/4526/file/Bangladesh%20Child%20Marriage%20report%202020.pdf.pdf. [23 November 2020].
57 Billah, M 2021, ‘Coronavirus child brides: Bangladesh teens forced into marriage during pandemic downturn’, South China Morning Post, 31 July. Available From: https://www.scmp.com/week‐asia/lifestyle‐culture/article/3143285/coronavirus‐child‐brides‐bangladesh‐teens‐forced. [17 March 2022].
58 Ahmed, K, Haq, S & Bartiaux, F 2019, ‘The nexus between extreme weather events, sexual violence, and early marriage: a study of vulnerable populations in Bangladesh’, Population and Environment, vol. 40, pp. 303‐324. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111‐019‐0312‐3. [18 December 2020].
59 Eckstein, D, Kunzel, V & Schafer, L 2021, Global Climate Risk Index, Germanwatch, p. 13. Available from: https://www.germanwatch.org/sites/default/files/Global%20Climate%20Risk%20Index%202021_2.pdf. [16 March 2022].
60 Bharadwaj, R, Bishop, D, Hazra, S, Pufaa, E & Annan, JK 2021, Climate‐induced migration and modern slavery: A toolkit for policy‐makers, Anti‐Slavery International & International Institute for Environment and Development, pp. 6‐34. Available from: https://www.antislavery.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/ClimateMigrationReportSep2021_low_res.pdf. [7 June 2022].
61Khan, A, Mittelberg, T & Sahai, R 2021, Global Fund to End Modern Slavery (GFEMS) Law and Policy Analysis Study Apparel and Ready‐Made Garment (RMG) Sector – Bangladesh, NORC at the University of Chicago, p. 30. Available from: https://www.gfems.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/06/GFEMSNORCPolicyAnalysisFinalReportMay262021FINAL‐EXTERNAL.pdf. [30 March 2023].
62Committee on Foreign Relations 2020, Seven Years After Rana Plaza, Significant Challenges Remain: A Minority Staff Report Prepared for the Use of the Committee on Foreign Relations United States Senate, One Hundred Sixteenth Congress, Second Session, p. 28. Available from: https://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Final%20Bangladesh%20%20Report‐‐3.2.2020.pdf. [20 November 2020].
63Anner, M 2020, Abandoned? The Impact of Covid‐19 on Workers and Businesses at the Bottom of Global Garment Supply Chains, PennState Center for Global Workers’ Rights, p. 1. Available from: http://www.workersrights.org/wp‐content/uploads/2020/03/Abandoned‐Penn‐State‐WRC‐Report‐March‐27‐2020.pdf?mc_cid=e744db66e5&mc_eid=daa26391d2. [20 November 2020]; Karim, N 2020, ‘Coronavirus pandemic led to an estimated 70,000 garment workers losing their factory jobs’, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 1 October. Available From: https://news.trust.org/item/20201001141717‐y1q0y/?utm_campaign=trafficking&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_source=mainListing&utm_content=link4&utm_contentItemId=20201001141717‐y1q0y. [23 November 2020].
64Clean Clothes Campaign 2020, Un(der) Paid in the Pandemic: An estimate of what the garment industry owes its workers, pp. 11‐14. Available from: https://cleanclothes.org/file‐repository/underpaid‐in‐the‐pandemic.pdf/view?mc_cid=6645a920bf&mc_eid=daa26391d2. [23 November 2020]; NORC at the University of Chigaco 2020, Ripped at the Seams: RMG Sector Workers during a Global Pandemic, Global Fund to End Modern Slavery, pp. 1‐3. Available from: https://www.gfems.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/06/COVID_RMG_Dec2020_G03RAPAPP01‐1.pdf. [17 March 2022]; IHRB & Chowdhury Center for Bangladesh Studies at UC Berkeley 2021, The Weakest Link in the Global Supply Chain: How the Pandemic is Affecting Bangladesh’s Garment Workers, p. 10. Available from: https://media.business‐humanrights.org/media/documents/IHRB__Chowdhury_Center_‐_How_the_Pandemic_is_Affecting_Bangladesh_Garment_Work_lxbjyVE.pdf. [17 March 2022]; Business & Human Rights Resource Centre 2021, Wage theft and pandemic profits, pp. 8‐9. Available from: https://media.business‐humanrights.org/media/documents/Unpaid_wages_v9.pdf. [17 March 2022].
65Transparentem 2020, Pandemic Pushes Struggling Tannery Workers to the Brink: Survey shows low wages and lack of contracts threaten the livelihoods of Bangladeshi tannery workers, p. 5. Available from: https://www.transparentem.com/wp‐content/uploads/2020/12/Transparentem‐Bangladesh‐December‐2020‐Survey.pdf. [25 January 2021]; Rabbani, A, Saxena, SB & Islam, F 2020, Research Brief: The Impact of COVID‐19 on the Lives of Workers in the Bangladesh Garment Industry, Chowdhury Center for Bangladesh Studies at UC Berkeley, pp. 5‐7. Available from: https://chowdhurycenter.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/docs/CC‐BRAC_Covid.pdf. [17 March 2022].
66NORC at the University of Chigaco 2020, Ripped at the Seams: RMG Sector Workers during a Global Pandemic, Global Fund to End Modern Slavery, pp. 1‐3. Available from: https://www.gfems.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/06/COVID_RMG_Dec2020_G03RAPAPP01‐1.pdf. [17 March 2022]; Islam, MA, Abbott, P, Haque, S, Gooch, F & Akhter, S 2022, The impact of Covid‐19 on women workers in the Bangladesh garment industry, Modern Slavery & Human Rights Policy & Evidence Centre, pp. 6‐7. Available from: https://modernslaverypec.org/assets/downloads/Women‐Bangladesh‐garment‐industry‐report‐final‐smaller.pdf. [15 September 2022]; Global Fund to End Modern Slavery 2022, Forced Labor Among Informal Apparel Workers in Apparel Hubs of Bangladesh: A Prevalence Estimation Report. Available from: https://www.gfems.org/wp‐content/uploads/2022/12/22.12.14_Informal_Apparel‐Prevalence‐Brief.pdf. [30 March 2023].
67 Idris, I 2018, Modern slavery within the tea industry in Bangladesh, K4D Helpdesk Report, Institute of Development Studies, p. 5. Available from: https://gsdrc.org/wp‐content/uploads/2018/03/273‐Modern‐Slavery‐within‐the‐Tea‐Industry‐in‐Bangladesh.pdf. [9 November 2020].
68 As above, pp. 2‐3; Ullah, A & Chowdhury, M 2022, ‘The history and the economic benefit of Bangladesh’s tea industry’, Dhaka Tribune, 18 October. Available From: https://www.dhakatribune.com/business/2022/10/18/the‐history‐and‐the‐economic‐benefit‐of‐bangladeshs‐tea‐industry. [30 March 2023]; International Labour Organisation 2019, Tea workers are underpaid, deprived and discriminated: Labour law should be amended. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/dhaka/Informationresources/Publicinformation/features/WCMS_749580/lang‐‐en/index.htm. [23 March 2023].
69Idris, I 2018, Modern slavery within the tea industry in Bangladesh, K4D Helpdesk Report, Institute of Development Studies, pp. 4‐5. Available from: https://gsdrc.org/wp‐content/uploads/2018/03/273‐Modern‐Slavery‐within‐the‐Tea‐Industry‐in‐Bangladesh.pdf. [9 November 2020]; Islam, M & Al‐Amin, M 2019, ‘Life behind leaves: capability, poverty and social vulnerability of tea garden workers in Bangladesh’, Labor History, vol. 60, no. 5, pp. 571‐587. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/0023656X.2019.1623868. [16 December 2020].
70Islam, M & Al‐Amin, M 2019, ‘Life behind leaves: capability, poverty and social vulnerability of tea garden workers in Bangladesh’, Labor History, vol. 60, no. 5, pp. 571‐587. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/0023656X.2019.1623868. [16 December 2020]; Idris, I 2018, Modern slavery within the tea industry in Bangladesh, K4D Helpdesk Report, Institute of Development Studies, p. 4. Available from: https://gsdrc.org/wp‐content/uploads/2018/03/273‐Modern‐Slavery‐within‐the‐Tea‐Industry‐in‐Bangladesh.pdf. [9 November 2020]; Ullah, A & Chowdhury, M 2022, ‘The history and the economic benefit of Bangladesh’s tea industry’, Dhaka Tribune, 18 October. Available From: https://www.dhakatribune.com/business/2022/10/18/the‐history‐and‐the‐economic‐benefit‐of‐bangladeshs‐tea‐industry. [30 March 2023].
71The World Bank 2020, The World Bank in Bangladesh: Overview. Available from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/bangladesh/overview. [18 December 2020].
72Asian Development Bank 2021, Basic Statistics, Asia and the Pacific. Available from: https://data.adb.org/dataset/basic‐statistics‐asia‐and‐pacific. [18 March 2022].
73Karim, N 2020, ‘In a first, Bangladesh seeks Interpol’s help to arrest trafficking kingpins’, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 10 November. Available From: https://news.trust.org/item/20201110163349‐i9y1r/?utm_campaign=trafficking&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_source=mainListing&utm_content=link7&utm_contentItemId=20201110163349‐i9y1r. [18 December 2020]; Azad, A 2019, ‘Recruitment of Migrant Workers in Bangladesh: Elements of Human Trafficking for Labor Exploitation’, Journal of Human Trafficking, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 130‐150. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/23322705.2017.1422091. [17 December 2020].
74NORC at the University of Chigaco 2021, Shattered Dreams: Bangladeshi Migrant Workers During a Global Pandemic, Global Fund to End Modern Slavery, pp. 6, 21‐23. Available from: https://www.gfems.org/wp‐content/uploads/2021/06/GFEMSRAOLRReport‐January2021.pdf. [17 March 2022].
75 2020, ‘Children involved in unsafe jobs joining riskier work’, Dhaka Tribune, 11 October. Available From: https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2020/10/11/children‐involved‐in‐unsafe‐jobs‐joining‐riskier‐work. [17 March 2020]; Redfern, C & Ahsan, A 2022, ‘Tens of Thousands of Boys in Bangladesh Were Forced into Work During the Pandemic. Now School Is Resuming Without Them’, Time, 26 April. Available From: https://time.com/6170432/bangladesh‐child‐labor‐pandemic/. [19 August 2022].
76Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022].
77Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2020, Trafficking in Persons report: Bangladesh country narrative, United States Department of State, p. 97. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2020/06/2020‐TIP‐Report‐Complete‐062420‐FINAL.pdf. [23 November 2020]; Field sources
78As above
79Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022].
80International Labour Organization NORMLEX Ratifications of P029 ‐ Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930, International Labour Organization. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:11300:0::NO::P11300_INSTRUMENT_ID:3174672%20. [31 January 2022].
81The Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking Act, 2012 (Act No. 3 of 2012) (Bangladesh)
82Khan, MJ & Bappi, EH 2022, ‘Human trafficking cases: Only 1.5pc see conviction’, The Daily Star, 8 October. Available From: https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/human‐trafficking‐conviction‐only‐15pc‐cases‐3137726?fbclid=IwAR0Tj2aGO8ltGKVAQiwgL81Acm5CbbfQ7rDVhT_MEXKM9plbFux4d8Szefw. [30 March 2023].
83Palma, P 2020, ‘Human trafficking: special tribunals to ensure speedy trials’, as above, 16 February. Available From: https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/human‐trafficking‐special‐tribunals‐ensure‐speedy‐trials‐1868497. [19 November 2020].
84 Karim, N 2021, ‘Lack of evidence, financial help found hurting Bangladesh trafficking cases’, Reuters, 22 March. Available From: https://www.reuters.com/article/us‐bangladesh‐trafficking‐court‐idUSKBN2BE1FK. [15 March 2022]; Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/bangladesh/#:~:text=The%20government%20identified%201%2C138%20potential,migrants%20in%20the%20overall%20number. [14 September 2022].
85Field sources.
86 Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022].
87Khan, MJ & Bappi, EH 2022, ‘Human trafficking cases: Only 1.5pc see conviction’, The Daily Star, 8 October. Available From: https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/human‐trafficking‐conviction‐only‐15pc‐cases‐3137726?fbclid=IwAR0Tj2aGO8ltGKVAQiwgL81Acm5CbbfQ7rDVhT_MEXKM9plbFux4d8Szefw. [30 March 2023].
88 Palma, P & Islam, R 2020, ‘Trafficking Victims: Jail straightaway, not rehabilitation’, The Daily Star, 2 September. Available From: https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/trafficking‐victims‐jail‐straightaway‐not‐rehabilitation‐1954405. [20 November 2020]; Field sources.
89 The Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking Act, 2012 (Act No. 3 of 2012) (Bangladesh)
90 Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2020, Trafficking in Persons report: Bangladesh country narrative, United States Department of State, p. 97. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2020/06/2020‐TIP‐Report‐Complete‐062420‐FINAL.pdf. [23 November 2020].
91Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022].
92The Penal Code, 1860 (Bangladesh) 366
93The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 2017 (Bangladesh) art 19
94Girls Not Brides n.d., Child Marriage Atlas: Bangladesh. Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning‐resources/child‐marriage‐atlas/atlas/bangladesh/. [14 September 2022].
95United Nations Children’s Fund 2020, Ending Child Marriage: A profile of progress in Bangladesh, pp. 7, 21. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/media/4526/file/Bangladesh%20Child%20Marriage%20report%202020.pdf.pdf. [23 November 2020]. pp. 30‐31 United Nations Children’s Fund 2018, ‘Plan of Action launched to eliminate child marriage in Bangladesh’, 14 August. Available From: https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/en/press‐releases/plan‐action‐launched‐eliminate‐child‐marriage‐bangladesh#:~:text=The%20goal%20of%20the%20NPA,eliminate%20child%20marriage%20by%202041. [18 March 2022].
96Hasan, K 2018, ‘Five year NPA for fighting human trafficking launched’, Dhaka Tribune, 3 December. Available From: https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/event/2018/12/03/five‐year‐npa‐for‐fighting‐human‐traffickinglaunched. [21 January 2021]; 2019, ‘Human Trafficking Takes Centre Stage in Bangladesh’, International Organization for Migration, 24 May. Available From: https://www.iom.int/news/human‐trafficking‐takes‐centre‐stage‐bangladesh. [15 September 2022].
97Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/bangladesh/#:~:text=The%20government%20identified%201%2C138%20potential,migrants%20in%20the%20overall%20number. [14 September 2022].
98Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022].
99Field source.
100Field source; Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022].
101Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics 2018, Labour Force Survey (LFS) 2016‐17, Government of Bangladesh, p. 59. Available from: https://mole.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/mole.portal.gov.bd/page/ac7088c7_a211_4905_9ff3_1e62af00c837/LFS_2016‐17_compressed.pdf. [14 October 2022].
102Labour Act, 2006 (Bangladesh) arts 175 & 202
103Committee on Foreign Relations 2020, Seven Years After Rana Plaza, Significant Challenges Remain: A Minority Staff Report Prepared for the Use of the Committee on Foreign Relations United States Senate, One Hundred Sixteenth Congress, Second Session, p. 3. Available from: https://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Final%20Bangladesh%20%20Report‐‐3.2.2020.pdf. [20 November 2020]. International Trade Union Confederation 2022, We need a better Bangladesh: Violations of workers’ rights in the ready‐made garment, shipbreaking and leather sectors, pp. 7‐10. Available from: https://www.ituc‐csi.org/we‐need‐a‐better‐bangladesh‐report. [14 September 2022].
1042019, ‘Bangladesh police, garment workers clash in protests’, Associated Press, 9 January. Available From: https://apnews.com/article/a76c8c20f88c4db59c56a9645796d4d8. [21 January 2021]; Preetha, SS 2019, ‘Post‐mortem of a workers’ death’, The Daily Star, 18 January. Available From: https://www.thedailystar.net/star‐weekend/spotlight/news/dispensable‐demands‐disposable‐lives‐1688998. [25 January 2021].
105Overseas Employment and Migrants Act, 2013 (Act No. VLVIII of 2013) (Bangladesh)
106Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 109‐114. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [08 March 2022].
1072022, ‘PM Hasina asks expat ministry to protect migrants from deception: Cabinet secy’, Prothom Alo, 7 February. Available From: https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/pm‐hasina‐asks‐expat‐ministry‐to‐protect‐migrants‐from‐deception‐cabinet‐secy. [18 March 2022].
108Global Protection Cluster Anti‐Trafficking Task Team 2020, An Introductory Guide to Anti‐Trafficking Action in Internal Displacement Contexts, Global Protection Cluster, pp. 1‐2. Available from: https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/wp‐content/uploads/Introductory‐Guide‐on‐Anti‐Trafficking‐in‐IDP‐Contexts_2020_FINAL‐1.pdf. [13 January 2022].