Global Slavery Index
Global Slavery Index / COuntry Study

Modern slavery in Indonesia

Estimated number living in modern slavery:

1,833,000 (6.7

per thousand)

Vulnerability:

49

/100

Government response rating:

50

/100

Population:

273,524,000

GDP per capita (PPP):

12,072

(current international $)

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Overview

Indonesia had among the strongest government responses to modern slavery within Asia and the Pacific, performing well relative to its wealth compared to higher-income neighbours.1 The government improved its criminal justice response by outlawing forced marriage in April 2022,2 and raising the minimum marriage age of girls in 2019 to align with the minimum age for boys.3 However gaps in legislation still allow child marriage to occur.4 Opportunities for the government to strengthen its response include fully funding the implementation of the National Action Plan for the Prevention and Handling of the Crime of Trafficking in Persons 2020-2024 (NAP), improving efforts to identify and support survivors, and addressing modern slavery in supply chains. Indonesia has the 10th highest prevalence of modern slavery in the region, and vulnerability is driven by discrimination against minority groups and poverty.

Prevalence

The 2023 Global Slavery Index (GSI) estimates that over 1.8 million people were living in modern slavery in Indonesia on any given day in 2021, a prevalence of 6.7 people for every thousand people in the country. This places Indonesia within the top 10 out of 27 countries in the Asia Pacific region when ranked by prevalence of modern slavery, and 62nd out of 160 countries globally. The populous nation also ranks within the top 10 countries in the world in terms of the estimated total number of people living in modern slavery.

Forced labour

Forced labour exploitation

Forced labour exploitation is reported in several sectors including fishing and fish processing,5 palm oil production,6 logging,7 construction, mining, and manufacturing,8 with women and girls facing additional risks of forced labour in domestic services.9 Forced labour of children is also reported in domestic work, fishing, begging,10 and in the movement of illicit drugs.11 In 2022, the Indonesian National Police (INP) reported investigating 89 cases of cross-border labour trafficking, a substantial increase from 16 cases in 2021.12

Modern slavery is deeply connected to environmental exploitation. For example, Indonesia produces the world’s second largest proportion of global fish catch,13 yet illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing has led to declining fish stocks and consequently, labour exploitation as a means to reduce costs.14 In 2014, the Indonesian government banned foreign fishing vessels operating in its waters to prevent IUU fishing, and following the identification of over 1,300 foreign fisherman trafficked to Indonesia for exploitation aboard IUU fishing vessels in 2015,15 the government intensified its crackdown, seizing and sinking foreign vessels violating the ban.16 While this reduced the presence of vulnerable foreign fisherman, a 2019 study found that local fisherman (including internal migrants) continue to be exploited through debt bondage, salary deductions, and inhumane working conditions.17

Similar abuses have been documented alongside environmental exploitation in the production of palm oil,18 a common ingredient in soap, food products, and other everyday items.19 Indonesia is the world’s largest exporter of palm oil,20 and according to a 2020 investigation, international beauty brands and financial institutions have both been connected to severe abuses in the country’s palm oil industry, including rape, threats, labour exploitation, and slavery.21  Workers are also vulnerable to modern slavery in illegal forest clearing for palm oil plantations, with a large number of plantations established without the required permits.22 Increased carbon emissions, pollution, and flooding driven by illegal logging can reduce plantation profitability which in turn can fuel further exploitation of workers to recoup costs.23

Indonesian migrant workers are vulnerable to being trafficked overseas by unscrupulous local recruitment agencies, including for exploitation in fishing,24 domestic work,25 and online scam centres.26 In April 2023, three individuals were convicted of human trafficking in Indonesia after recruiting workers for exploitation in online scam centres in Cambodia. The workers were promised jobs marketing cryptocurrency, but had their passports withheld and were forced to scam victims in Australia, Europe, and China under threats of physical abuse. One worker was told he would have to pay almost US$2,000 to leave.27

Forced commercial sexual exploitation of adults

In 2022, the INP investigated 22 cases of trafficking for sexual exploitation; however the government did not record all trafficking data centrally, therefore this figure may not capture all cases reported.28 Women and girls are particularly at risk of being trafficked for sexual exploitation under false pretences of work in restaurants, factories, or households, particularly in Batam and Jakarta, or near mining sites in Maluku, Papua, and Jambi provinces, as well as sexual exploitation via online platforms.29

Commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC)

In 2022, the Commission for Child Protection reported identifying 150 cases of child economic exploitation, sexual exploitation, pornography, and cybercrimes.30 In early 2020, six people were arrested by the Jakarta police for facilitating CSEC in a North Jakarta café, where at least 10 girls were abused and forced to consume pills to slow the onset of menstruation.31 CSEC has also been reported to take place in apartments,32 with recruitment of some victims occurring via social media.33 This risk increased during the pandemic.34

Forced marriage

In 2018, there were an estimated 1.2 million girls aged 20 to 24 who were married before their 18th birthday in Indonesia, one of the largest numbers in the world.35 This amounted to 11.2 per cent of women in this age bracket; although still significant, this is a decrease from 14.7 per cent in 2008.36 Child marriage is driven by economic necessity,37 family honour codes,38 and cultural beliefs, especially in rural areas such as Sulawesi where child marriage is particularly prevalent.39 Bride kidnapping (merariq) is reported in Lombok where historical tradition is coopted to validate child marriage.40 Women are also abducted for forced marriage on Sumba island as part of a cultural tradition known as kawin tangkap, or “catch-a-bride.”41

Imported products at risk of modern slavery

Indonesia is not only affected by modern slavery within its borders: as one of the world’s largest economies, Indonesia – like other G20 countries – is exposed to the risk of modern slavery through the products it imports. Nearly two-thirds of all forced labour cases are linked to global supply chains, with workers exploited across a wide range of sectors and at every stage of the supply chain. Most forced labour occurs in the lowest tiers; that is, in the extraction of raw materials and in production stages. Given the G20’s level of influence in the global economy, it is critical to examine their imports at risk of forced labour and efforts to address this risk. Indonesia imports US$5.2 billion worth of products at-risk of being made using forced labour annually. Table 1 highlights the top five most valuable products (according to US$ value per annum) imported by Indonesia that are at risk of being produced under conditions of modern slavery.

Table 1: Imports of products at risk of modern slavery to Indonesia
Product at risk of modern slavery Import value(in billions of US$) Source countries
Electronics 3.0 China, Malaysia
Garments 0.7 Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, Vietnam
Textiles 0.7 China
Coal 0.4 China, Pakistan
Sugarcane 0.4 Brazil

Vulnerability

Governance issues Lack of basic needs Inequality Disenfranchised groups Effects of conflict Overall weighted average
35 /100 48/100 46/100 77/100 39/100 49/100

Vulnerability to modern slavery in Indonesia is primarily driven by discrimination against minority groups. Indonesia is home to more than 2,300 indigenous groups,42 yet only around 1,300 are formally recognised by the government.43 Without legal recognition, these communities are deprived of collective land rights.44 For years, corrupt logging for palm oil and pulp plantations has displaced Indigenous communities from their traditional lands, stripping them of their livelihoods, resources, and cultural identity.45 Dispossession places these communities at risk of exploitation as they search for new sources of income.46

Despite the impact on local communities, there are few alternatives in remote areas to employment in the palm oil sector, where workers are vulnerable to forced labour.47 Workers’ access to housing, food, and other necessities hinges on non-involvement in union activities and the achievement of steep production targets, which often require them to enlist the help of their families.48 Further, absence of routine labour inspections, limited enforcement of legal protections, and failure to prosecute violations has reportedly fostered a culture of impunity among employers.49 Similar patterns are evident in the fish processing sector, where poor enforcement of legal protections has been cited as one key factor driving exploitation among the predominantly female workforce.50 The COVID-19 pandemic compounded vulnerability, particularly among the 70 million informal workers who make up more than half of Indonesia’s workforce.51 Drivers, farmers, porters, construction, and domestic workers were among those left without income or social protections, and women in particular struggled to find alternative sources of income while juggling additional caretaking responsibilities.52

Overseas migration similarly is driven by a lack of local jobs and better income opportunities abroad.53 Yet social pressures to migrate as a means of “poverty alleviation” — a narrative perpetuated by brokers — coupled with inaccurate information, increase the risk of trafficking among Indonesian migrants, especially women.54 Vulnerability of female domestic workers is further exacerbated by a government ban on migration to 21 predominantly Middle Eastern countries,55 which despite being intended to protect workers, has spurred increased irregular migration and risk of trafficking.56

Conflict and displacement also drive vulnerability, particularly in West Papua where Indigenous Papuans are subject to human rights abuses by Indonesian security forces. Torture, enforced disappearances, and extrajudicial killings (including of children) have been reported in the region in addition to mass internal displacement.57 Since the end of 2018, an estimated 60,000 to 100,000 Papuans have been displaced and now live in temporary shelters or in the forests without basic necessities, and where humanitarian actors lack access.58 Further, across Indonesia, an estimated 68,000 people were displaced due to disasters in 2022, with negative impacts on income, education, and health.59 Such disruptions increase vulnerability to modern slavery, including child marriage as a means to alleviate household expenses.60

A 2018 study found that education, wealth, and media exposure had a “protective” effect against child marriage in Indonesia, while living rurally increased risk. Structural factors such as religious and ethnic diversity, which varied by province, were also found to be important predictors of child marriage.61 The minimum age of marriage under cultural law (adat) varies by province,62 and religious institutions are granted authority to validate marriages under 18.63 A 2019 study of applications for marriage dispensations to religious courts in Tuban, Bogor, and Mamuju districts from 2013 to 2015 found that of 377 requests, 97.3 per cent were granted.64 The findings suggest dispensations were used to prevent behaviour deemed to be socially and religiously unacceptable, such as having an intimate relationship outside marriage.65

Government response

Survivors identified and supported Criminal justice mechanisms National and regional level coordination Risk factors are addressed Government and business supply chains Total
46/100 65/100 50/100 57/100 0/100 50/100

The Indonesian government’s response to modern slavery received a score of 50 per cent, placing it among the higher scoring responses assessed in the region. The government achieved its highest score for its criminal justice response to modern slavery, however efforts to identify and support survivors and address forced labour in supply chains were limited.

Since the 2018 GSI, the government has improved its criminal justice response. In April 2022, the government passed legislation outlawing forced marriage,66 and in 2019, it raised the minimum age of marriage for girls from 16 to 19 with parental permission and to 21 without permission, reflecting the minimum age for boys.67 While a promising step, parents can circumvent these laws by filing for dispensation.68 Other gaps in the legal framework include the absence of legislation criminalising forced labour and CSEC. While human trafficking is criminalised under the 2007 anti-trafficking law, the definition of child trafficking requires the use of “means” such as force, deception, coercion, or abuse of power or vulnerability, in contradiction with international law.69 Indonesia is also yet to ratify several relevant international conventions, including the ILO 2011 Domestic Workers Convention and 2014 Forced Labour Protocol.

Despite improvements, gaps in enforcing protections remain. Anonymised court decisions related to human trafficking and other cases are made publicly available via the Supreme Court Directory of Decisions, setting a positive example of transparency for the region.70 An analysis of 435 human trafficking-related court decisions from 2019 to 2021 found that multiple cases were classed as trafficking cases without related trafficking charges, limited orders for restitution or confiscation of assets were made, and few decisions referenced use of victim-sensitive approaches in courts.71 However, there is evidence of victim protection measures being used outside courts, with the Witness and Victim Protection Agency (LPSK) reportedly providing protection for 314 victims and witnesses of human trafficking crimes in 2020.72

The government has taken some action to identify and support survivors, for example LPSK runs a hotline for all victims to report modern slavery, and the Ministry of Women Empowerment and Child Protection (MOWECP) runs a hotline for women, while citizens abroad can access hotlines run by the National Agency for the Protection and Placement of International Migrant Workers (BNP2TKI) and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA).73 Yet some gaps in the response continue: for example, national guidelines74 for first responders on how to to identify and screen victims are insufficiently implemented,75 and there is no national referral mechanism to ensure victims receive support services. While some services are available, including integrated service centres for women and children (P2TP2A) in all 34 provinces, men reportedly experience difficulties accessing services, and there is concerning evidence that survivors’ movements are restricted within shelters.76

The government’s response to modern slavery is coordinated by the Task Force for the Prevention and Handling of the Crime of Trafficking in Persons, convened by MOWECP.77 In 2022, the Task Force finalised the 2020-2024 NAP after some years of delay.78 Although a positive step to improve national level coordination of the response, several gaps remain: for example, the government does not routinely review its response to modern slavery, and it did not publish the Task Force’s budget. The Task Force oversees 32 provincial and 242 municipal and district-level anti-trafficking task forces, however reduced funding during the reporting period reportedly hampered their prevention activities,79 and not all task forces remained operational.80

Meanwhile, as co-chair of the Bali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons and Related Transnational Crime, Indonesia is a leader in regional cooperation to address human trafficking.81 The government is involved in regional efforts to address trafficking through ASEAN,82 and to improve labour migration safety through the Colombo Process83 and the Abu Dhabi Dialogue.84 Further, Indonesia has established agreements with Australia,85 the United Arab Emirates (UAE),86 and Taiwan87 to collaborate on modern slavery issues.

Indonesia is one of the largest source countries of migrant workers in Southeast Asia, and has negotiated bilateral labour agreements with South Korea,88 the Philippines,89 Saudi Arabia,90 and the UAE, 91 which include provisions to protect labour migrants. Migrant worker guidebooks detailing rights and redress mechanisms are also distributed by local authorities prior to migration.92 However, incomplete implementation of the 2019 Law on Protection of Migrant Workers – which prohibits recruiters passing placement fees onto Indonesian migrant workers93 – has meant many workers continue to bear costs, increasing their risk of debt bondage.94

Within in Indonesia, several risk factors remain unaddressed, including insufficient labour inspections, particularly in rural areas, and ongoing reports of uninvestigated official corruption in modern slavery crimes.95 During the reporting period, reports of forced labour on a palm oil plantation emerged in which local police and politicians were complicit.96 The Indonesian government has not taken steps to eliminate forced labour from public and private supply chains.

Recommendations

Survivors identified and supported 

  • Ensure survivor support services, including shelters, crisis support centres, and community-based protection, cover all populations — including males and migrants — and ensure no victims are detained in shelters against their will.

  • Deliver systematic training at regular intervals on how to identify and screen potential victims and the implementation of the national guidelines for all first responders.

  • Establish a national referral mechanism to ensure victims are referred to services.

Criminal justice mechanisms 

  • Ratify all international conventions relating to the elimination of modern slavery, including the Domestic Workers Convention ILO No. 189, 2011, the Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, P029, 1930, and the Work in Fishing Convention ILO No. 188, 2007.

  • Criminalise modern slavery in all of its forms, including forced labour and child commercial sexual exploitation, and close all legal loopholes that enable marriage under the age of 18 to occur.

National and regional level coordination

  • Ensure activities in the National Action Plan for the Prevention and Handling of the Crime of Trafficking in Persons 2020-2024 are fully funded.

  • Pursue and strengthen bilateral labour agreements to improve the protection of migrant workers (rather than implementing labour migrant bans) through clearly stated rights and mechanisms to jointly monitor recruitment.

Risk factors are addressed 

  • Ensure all reports of official complicity in modern slavery cases are thoroughly investigated.

  • Introduce and enforce laws to prohibit charging of recruitment fees to all employees, and conduct regular labour inspections to address exploitative practices.

  • Strengthen enforcement of legislation to protect workers’ rights in high-risk sectors, such as palm oil, domestic work, and fishing, and among informal workers, migrants, Indigenous communities, and other vulnerable groups.

Government and business supply chains

Introduce mandatory human rights due diligence legislation to prevent government and businesses from sourcing goods or services linked to modern slavery.

Endnotes

1The World Bank 2021, GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) ‐ East Asia & Pacific, South Asia. Available from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=Z4‐8S&most_recent_value_desc=true. [16 August 2022].
2Law of the Republic of Indonesia Concerning the Crime of Sexual Violence, 2022 (Indonesia) art 10
3Badan Pusat Statistik 2020, Prevention of Child Marriage: Acceleration that cannot wait, UNICEF & PUSKAPA, p. xi. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/media/5021/file/Prevention%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20Report.pdf [20 September 2020].
4Wibawa, T 2019, ‘Indonesia raises minimum age for marriages in a bid to end child brides’, ABC News, 29 September. Available from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-29/indonesia-raises-minimum-age-for-girls-to-marry/11523894 [1 October 2020].
5Jones, K, Visser, D, Humolong, J & Nuriyati, D 2019, Fish for Export: Working in the Wild Capture Seafood Industry in Indonesia, British Academy Tackling Slavery, Human Trafficking and Child Labour in Modern Business, pp. 24‐27. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339310618_FISH_FOR_EXPORT_Working_in_the_wild_capture_seafood_industry_in_Indonesia/link/5e4a9a8ba6fdccd965ac9a91/download. [18 September 2020];Jones, K, Visser, D & Simic, A 2019, ‘Fishing for export: calo, recruiters, informality, and debt in international supply chains’, Journal of the British Academy, vol. 7, no. s1, pp. 107‐130. DOI:https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/007s1.107. [16 August 2022].
6Mason, M & McDowell, R 2020. ‘Palm oil labor abuses linked to world’s top brands, banks’, Associated Press, 24 September. Available From: https://apnews.com/article/virus‐outbreak‐only‐on‐ap‐indonesia‐financial‐markets‐malaysia‐7b634596270cc6aa7578a062a30423bb. [10 December 2020]; Mason, M & McDowell, R 2020. ‘Rape, abuses in palm oil fields linked to top beauty brands’, Associated Press, 25 November. Available From: https://apnews.com/article/palm‐oil‐abuse‐investigation‐cosmetics‐2a209d60c42bf0e8fcc6f8ea6daa11c7. [10 December 2020].
7DPD GSBI Sumut, KSPPM, AMAN Tano Batak, BAKUMSU ‐ Walhi Sumut & Serikat Tani Tobasa dan Aliansi Gerak Tutup TPL 2021, Investigasi Perbudakan di Perkebunan Kayu Toba Pulp Lestari. Available from: https://bakumsu.or.id/en/investigasi‐perbudakan‐di‐perkebunan‐kayu‐toba‐pulp‐lestari/. [16 August 2022].
8Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2020, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia Country Narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 257‐262. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2020/06/2020‐TIP‐Report‐Complete‐062420‐FINAL.pdf. [18 August 2020].
9As above; Dursin, K 2020, ‘Indonesia’s Laws Ineffective against Human Trafficking’, Inter Press Service, 4 March. Available From: http://www.ipsnews.net/2020/03/indonesias‐laws‐ineffective‐human‐trafficking/. [24 August 2020]; 2016. ‘Indonesia’s abused domestic worker to seek justice’, International Labour Organization, 23 August. Available From: https://www.ilo.org/jakarta/info/public/pr/WCMS_513910/lang–en/index.htm. [4 November 2020].
10Bureau of International Labor Affairs 2018, 2018 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, United States Department of Labor, pp. 631‐632. Available from: https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2018/ChildLaborReportBook.pdf [20 August 2020].
11Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2020, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia Country Narrative, United States Department of State, p. 261. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2020/06/2020‐TIP‐Report‐Complete‐062420‐FINAL.pdf [18 August 2020].
12Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2023, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2023‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/indonesia/#:~:text=From%20the%20data%20reported%2C%20the,involving%20an%20unspecified%20form%20of. [7 August 2023].
13Food and Agriculture Organization 2022, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture: Towards Blue Transformation, United Nations, p. 14. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461en/cc0461en.pdf. [18 April 2023].
14Gokkon, B 2022, ‘Foreign capital, blamed for depleting Indonesia’s fish stocks, is set to return’, Mongabay, 11 January. Available From: https://news.mongabay.com/2022/01/foreign‐capital‐blamed‐for‐depleting‐indonesias‐fish‐stocks‐is‐set‐to‐return/#:~:text=Former%20fisheries%20minister%20Susi%20Pudjiastuti,highest%20levels%20of%20marine%20biodiversity. [16 August 2022]; Jones, K, Visser, D & Simic, A 2019, ‘Fishing for export: calo, recruiters, informality, and debt in international supply chains’, Journal of the British Academy, vol. 7, no. s1, pp. 107‐130. DOI:https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/007s1.107. [16 August 2022]; Tickler, D, Meeuwig, JJ, Bryant, K, David, F, Forrest, JAH, Gordon, E, Joudo Larsen, J, Oh, B, Pauly, D, Sumaila, UR & Zeller, D 2018, ‘Modern slavery and the race to fish’, Nature Communications, vol. 9, no. 1, p. 4643. DOI:10.1038/s41467‐018‐07118‐9. [11 January 2022].
15International Organization for Migration 2016, Report on Human Trafficking, Forced Labour and Fisheries Crime in the Indonesian Fishing Industry, p. 3. Available from: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/country/docs/indonesia/Human‐Trafficking‐Forced‐Labour‐and‐Fisheries‐Crime‐in‐the‐Indonesian‐Fishing‐Industry‐IOM.pdf. [20 September 2020].
16Jones, K, Visser, D & Simic, A 2019, ‘Fishing for export: calo, recruiters, informality, and debt in international supply chains’, Journal of the British Academy, vol. 7, no. s1, pp. 107‐130. DOI:https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/007s1.107. [16 August 2022]; Global Fishing Watch 2019, ‘Sharp decline in foreign fishing boats in Indonesian waters – Global Fishing Watch analysis’, 24 July. Available From: https://globalfishingwatch.org/press‐release/sharp‐decline‐in‐foreign‐fishing‐boats‐in‐indonesian‐waters‐global‐fishing‐watch‐analysis/. [16 August 2022].
17Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 285‐288. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2022/04/337308‐2022‐TIP‐REPORT‐inaccessible.pdf; Jones, K, Visser, D & Simic, A 2019, ‘Fishing for export: calo, recruiters, informality, and debt in international supply chains’, Journal of the British Academy, vol. 7, no. s1, pp. 107‐130. DOI:https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/007s1.107. [16 August 2022].
18Fair Labor Association 2018, Assessing Forced Labor Risks in the Palm Oil Sector in Indonesia and Malaysia, p. 2. Available from: https://www.theconsumergoodsforum.com/wp‐content/uploads/2018/11/201811‐CGF‐FLA‐Palm‐Oil‐Report‐Malaysia‐and‐Indonesia_web.pdf. [21 August 2020]; Mason, M & McDowell, R 2020. ‘Palm oil labor abuses linked to world’s top brands, banks’, Associated Press, 24 September. Available From: https://apnews.com/article/virus‐outbreak‐only‐on‐ap‐indonesia‐financial‐markets‐malaysia‐7b634596270cc6aa7578a062a30423bb. [10 December 2020];Mason, M & McDowell, R 2020. ‘Rape, abuses in palm oil fields linked to top beauty brands’, Associated Press, 25 November. Available From: https://apnews.com/article/palm‐oil‐abuse‐investigation‐cosmetics‐2a209d60c42bf0e8fcc6f8ea6daa11c7. [10 December 2020]; De Groot Heupner, S 2020, ‘Continuity of hegemonic power? The case of modern plantation labour in North Sumatra, Indonesia’, Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, pp. 1‐13. Available from: https://doi‐org.ezproxy.library.uwa.edu.au/10.1080/13547860.2020.1773620. [21 August 2020].
19World Wildlife Fund n.d., Which Everyday Products Contain Palm Oil? Available from: https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/which‐everyday‐products‐contain‐palm‐oil. [18 April 2023].
20 2020. ‘Indonesia’s palm oil exports hit record in 2019’, Reuters, 3 February. Available From: https://in.reuters.com/article/indonesia‐palmoil‐idINKBN1ZX0YX. [2 November 2020]; Statista 2020, Volume of total palm oil exports from Indonesia from 2009 to 2019. Available from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1095541/indonesia‐palm‐oil‐export‐volume/. [2 November 2020].
21Mason, M & McDowell, R 2020. ‘Palm oil labor abuses linked to world’s top brands, banks’, Associated Press, 24 September. Available From: https://apnews.com/article/virus‐outbreak‐only‐on‐ap‐indonesia‐financial‐markets‐malaysia‐7b634596270cc6aa7578a062a30423bb. [10 December 2020]; Mason, M & McDowell, R 2020. ‘Rape, abuses in palm oil fields linked to top beauty brands’, Associated Press, 25 November. Available From: https://apnews.com/article/palm‐oil‐abuse‐investigation‐cosmetics‐2a209d60c42bf0e8fcc6f8ea6daa11c7. [10 December 2020].
22Jackson, B, Decker Sparks, JL, Brown, C & Boyd, DS 2020, ‘Understanding the co‐occurrence of tree loss and modern slavery to improve the efficacy of conservation actions and policies’, Conservation Science and Practice, vol. 2, no. 5, p. 9. Available from: DOI:10.1111/csp2.183 [25 September 2020].
23Jackson, B, Decker Sparks, JL, Brown, C & Boyd, DS 2020, ‘Understanding the co‐occurrence of tree loss and modern slavery to improve the efficacy of conservation actions and policies’, Conservation Science and Practice, vol. 2, no. 5, p. 9. Available from: DOI:10.1111/csp2.183 [25 September 2020]; Human Rights Watch 2019, “When We Lost the Forest, We Lost Everything:” Oil Palm Plantations and Rights Violations in Indonesia, Human Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/09/23/when‐we‐lost‐forest‐we‐lost‐everything/oil‐palm‐plantations‐and‐rights‐violations [25 September 2020].
24Greenpeace & Serikat Buruh Migran Indonesia 2019, Seabound: The Journey to Modern Slavery on the High Seas, Greenpeace, p. 24. Available from: https://storage.googleapis.com/planet4‐southeastasia‐stateless/2019/12/b68e7b93‐greenpeace‐seabound‐book‐c.pdf. [20 September 2020]; McVeigh, K & Firdaus, F 2020. ‘‘Hold on, brother’: the final days of the doomed crew on the Long Xing 629’, The Guardian, 7 July. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/07/hold‐on‐brother‐final‐days‐of‐doomed‐crew‐on‐chinese‐shark‐finning‐boat. [16 August 2022]; Serikat Buruh Migran Indonesia & Greenpeace 2021, Forced Labour at Sea: The case of Indonesian Migrant Fishers, Greenpeace. Available from: https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4‐southeastasia‐stateless/2021/05/ef65bfe1‐greenpeace‐2021‐forced‐labour‐at‐sea‐digital_final.pdf. [16 August 2022].
25 Lih Yi, B 2019. ‘Indonesia arrests eight in major human trafficking bust’, Reuters, 10 April. Available From: https://www.reuters.com/article/us‐indonesia‐trafficking‐police/indonesia‐arrests‐eight‐in‐major‐human‐trafficking‐bust‐idUSKCN1RL24N?edition‐redirect=uk. [18 September 2020].
26Kelly, C 2023. ‘‘I couldn’t escape’: the people trafficked into call centres and forced to scam Australians’, The Guardian, 2 April. Available From: https://www.theguardian.com/law/2023/apr/02/i‐couldnt‐escape‐the‐people‐trafficked‐into‐call‐centres‐and‐forced‐to‐scam‐australians. [1 August 2023].
27As above
28Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2023, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2023‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/indonesia/#:~:text=From%20the%20data%20reported%2C%20the,involving%20an%20unspecified%20form%20of. [7 August 2023].
29Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2023, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2023‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/indonesia/#:~:text=From%20the%20data%20reported%2C%20the,involving%20an%20unspecified%20form%20of. [7 August 2023]; Ministry of Empowerment Women and Children Protection 2020. ‘Combating Trafficking in Persons with the Mode of Sexual Exploitation in Online Media, Kemen PPPA: Recognise the Mode and Understand the Technological Advancements’, Government of Indonesia, 29 July. Available From: https://www‐kemenpppa‐go‐id.translate.goog/index.php/page/read/29/2812/berantas‐perdagangan‐orang‐dengan‐modus‐eksploitasi‐seksual‐di‐media‐daring‐kemen‐pppa‐kenali‐modusnya‐dan‐pahami‐perkembangan‐teknologi?_x_tr_sl=id&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc. [16 August 2022].
30Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2023, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2023‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/indonesia/#:~:text=From%20the%20data%20reported%2C%20the,involving%20an%20unspecified%20form%20of. [7 August 2023].
31Marhaenjati, B 2020, ‘Police Uncover Horrific Child Prostitution Syndicate in Jakarta’, Jakarta Globe. Available from: https://jakartaglobe.id/news/police‐uncover‐horrific‐child‐prostitution‐syndicate‐in‐jakarta/ [18 September 2020].
32Khidhir, S 2020, ‘Indonesia’s child prostitution plague’, The ASEAN Post. Available from: https://theaseanpost.com/article/indonesias‐child‐prostitution‐plague [18 September 2020].
33Renaldi, A 2022. ‘Covid‐19 has Worsened Child Sex Trafficking in Indonesia, Including Resort Paradise Bali’, South China Morning Post, 7 January. Available From: https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/covid‐19‐has‐worsened‐child‐sex‐trafficking‐indonesia‐including‐resort‐paradise‐bali. [16 August 2022].
34ECPAT, INTERPOL & UNICEF 2022, Disrupting Harm in Indonesia: Evidence on online child sexual exploitation and abuse, Global Partnership to End Violence Against Children. Available from: https://www.end‐violence.org/sites/default/files/2022‐09/DH_Indonesia_ONLINE_final.pdf. [18 April 2023].
35The absolute number was obtained by multiplying the prevalence of child marriage with population projection from the 2015 SUPAS (Intercensal Population Survey). Badan Pusat Statistik 2020, Prevention of Child Marriage: Acceleration that cannot wait, UNICEF & PUSKAPA, p. x. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/media/5021/file/Prevention%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20Report.pdf [20 September 2020].
36Badan Pusat Statistik 2020, Prevention of Child Marriage: Acceleration that cannot wait, UNICEF & PUSKAPA, p. iiv. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/media/5021/file/Prevention%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20Report.pdf [20 September 2020].
37The Jakarta Post 2019, ‘Child marriage still common, despite Indonesian court ban’, The Jakarta Post. Available from: https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/03/14/child‐marriage‐still‐common‐despite‐indonesian‐court‐ban.html [20 September 2020].
38Badan Pusat Statistik 2020, Prevention of Child Marriage: Acceleration that cannot wait, UNICEF & PUSKAPA, p. 45. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/media/5021/file/Prevention%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20Report.pdf [20 September 2020].
39Kruglinski, J 2019, ‘Saying No to Child Marriage in Indonesia’, Unicef Indonesia. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/stories/saying‐no‐child‐marriage‐indonesia [20 September 2020]; Badan Pusat Statistik 2020, Prevention of Child Marriage: Acceleration that cannot wait, UNICEF & PUSKAPA, pp. xii, 8. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/media/5021/file/Prevention%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20Report.pdf [20 September 2020]; Susanti, E 2019, ‘Women’s Knowledge and the Role of Local Female Leaders in Ending the Practice of the Early Marriage of Girls in Rural Communities of Indonesia’, Journal of International Women’s Studies, vol. 20, no. 9, pp. 13‐28. Available from: https://search‐proquest‐com.ezproxy.library.uwa.edu.au/publiccontent/docview/2335167483?pq‐origsite=summon [20 September 2020].
40Lih Yi, B 2019, ‘In Indonesia, ‘bride kidnapping’ tradition fuels child marriage despite new ban’, Reuters. Available from: https://www.reuters.com/article/us‐indonesia‐women‐marriage‐feature‐idUSKBN1XA00B [28 September 2020].
41Hamdani, S 2020, ‘Women abducted for marriage, and often raped, in Indonesia – it’s the custom, villagers say’, South China Morning Post. Available from: https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/family‐relationships/article/3093571/women‐abducted‐marriage‐and‐often‐raped‐indonesia [28 September 2020].
42Human Rights Watch 2019, “When We Lost the Forest, We Lost Everything:” Oil Palm Plantations and Rights Violations in Indonesia, Human Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/09/23/when‐we‐lost‐forest‐we‐lost‐everything/oil‐palm‐plantations‐and‐rights‐violations [25 September 2020]; Australian Human Rights Institute 2021, Indigenous peoples of Indonesia: Calling for recognition and respect, University of New South Wales. Available from: https://www.humanrights.unsw.edu.au/research/commentary/indigenous‐peoples‐indonesia‐recognition‐respect. [6 April 2023].
43International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs 2021, The Indigenous World 2021: Indonesia. Available from: https://www.iwgia.org/en/indonesia/4224‐iw‐2021‐indonesia.html. [6 April 2023].
44Human Rights Watch 2019, “When We Lost the Forest, We Lost Everything:” Oil Palm Plantations and Rights Violations in Indonesia, Human Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/09/23/when‐we‐lost‐forest‐we‐lost‐everything/oil‐palm‐plantations‐and‐rights‐violations [25 September 2020].
45As above
46Jackson, B, Decker Sparks, JL, Brown, C & Boyd, DS 2020, ‘Understanding the co‐occurrence of tree loss and modern slavery to improve the efficacy of conservation actions and policies’, Conservation Science and Practice, vol. 2, no. 5, p. 9. Available from: DOI:10.1111/csp2.183 [25 September 2020].
47 Fair Labor Association & The Consumer Goods Forum 2018, Assessing Forced Labor Risks in the Palm Oil Sector in Indonesia and Malaysia, The Consumer Goods Forum, p. 20. Available from: https://www.theconsumergoodsforum.com/wp‐content/uploads/2018/11/201811‐CGF‐FLA‐Palm‐Oil‐Report‐Malaysia‐and‐Indonesia_web.pdf [21 August 2020].
48De Groot Heupner, S 2020, ‘Continuity of hegemonic power? The case of modern plantation labour in North Sumatra, Indonesia,’ Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, pp. 1‐13. Available from: https://doi‐org.ezproxy.library.uwa.edu.au/10.1080/13547860.2020.1773620 [21 August 2020].
49Fair Labor Association & The Consumer Goods Forum 2018, Assessing Forced Labor Risks in the Palm Oil Sector in Indonesia and Malaysia, The Consumer Goods Forum, p. 20. Available from: https://www.theconsumergoodsforum.com/wp‐content/uploads/2018/11/201811‐CGF‐FLA‐Palm‐Oil‐Report‐Malaysia‐and‐Indonesia_web.pdf [21 August 2020].
50Jones, K, Visser, D, Humolong, J & Nuriyati, D 2019, Fish for Export: Working in the Wild Capture Seafood Industry in Indonesia, British Academy Tackling Slavery, Human Trafficking and Child Labour in Modern Business final report, p. 7. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339310618_FISH_FOR_EXPORT_Working_in_the_wild_capture_seafood_industry_in_Indonesia/link/5e4a9a8ba6fdccd965ac9a91/download [18 September 2020].
51Susanty, F & Makur, M 2020. ‘70 million informal workers most vulnerable during pandemic’, The Jakarta Post, 3 April. Available From: https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/04/03/70‐million‐informal‐workers‐most‐vulnerable‐during‐pandemic.html [4 August 2023].
52Oktavianti, TI 2021. ‘A year in COVID‐19: Women in informal work prove mettle against pandemic blues’, 3 March. Available From: https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2021/03/03/a‐year‐in‐covid‐19‐women‐in‐informal‐work‐prove‐mettle‐against‐pandemic‐blues.html [4 August 2021]; Center for Population and Policy Studies 2020. ‘Vulnerable Groups and COVID‐19 in Indonesia: Informal Sector, Disability, and Women’, Universitas Gadjah Mada, 5 August. Available From: https://cpps.ugm.ac.id/en/vulnerable‐groups‐and‐covid‐19‐in‐indonesia‐informal‐sector‐disability‐and‐women/ [4 August 2023].
53 The World Bank 2017, Indonesia’s Global Workers: Juggling Opportunities & Risks, World Bank Group, Washington, p. 23. Available from: http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/946351511861382947/pdf/121691‐Indonesias‐Global‐Workers‐Juggling‐Opportunities‐Risks.pdf [18 September 2020].
54International Organization for Migration 2021, The Tradition of Toil. The interplay of social norms and stigma in relation to human trafficking in Indonesia Case Study: West Sumba and South‐west Sumba, p. 11. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/the‐tradition‐of‐toil‐indonesia.pdf. [16 August 2022].
55Lih Ye, B 2019, ‘Indonesia arrests eight in major human trafficking bust’, Reuters. Available from: https://www.reuters.com/article/us‐indonesia‐trafficking‐police/indonesia‐arrests‐eight‐in‐major‐human‐trafficking‐bust‐idUSKCN1RL24N [24 August 2020]; Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 285‐288. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2022/04/337308‐2022‐TIP‐REPORT‐inaccessible.pdf.
56Walden, M 2017, ‘Despite migration ban, Indonesian domestic workers still face forced labour and abuses in the Gulf’, Equal Times. Available from: https://www.equaltimes.org/despite‐migration‐ban‐indonesian#.X0Nv4cgzaUl [ 18 September 2020]; Migrant Care, Serikat Buruh Migran Indonesia (SBMI) & Parahyangan University et al 2017, International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of their Families: Civil Society Organization Submission for List of Issues Prior to Reporting, UN Committee on Migrant Workers, p. 22. Available from: https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1411571/1930_1507807303_int‐cmw‐ngo‐idn‐28516‐e.pdf [11 May 2020]; Ganesha, A 2018, ‘Indonesia Set to Lift Ban on Sending Migrant Workers to Middle East’, Jakarta Globe, May 31. Available from: https://jakartaglobe.id/context/indonesia‐set‐to‐lift‐ban‐on‐sending‐migrant‐workers‐to‐middle‐east [11 May 2020]; Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families 2017, Concluding observations on the initial report of Indonesia, CMW/C/IDN/CO/1, art. 50. Available from: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CMW/C/IDN/CO/1&Lang=en [25 September 2020]; United Nations Human Rights Council 2017, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights on his mission to Saudi Arabia A/HRC/35/26/Add.3, United Nations, p. 17. Available from: https://www.refworld.org/docid/593a935e4.html. [16 August 2022].
57Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 2022. ‘Indonesia: UN experts sound alarm on serious Papua abuses, call for urgent aid’, United Nations, 1 March. Available From: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press‐releases/2022/03/indonesia‐un‐experts‐sound‐alarm‐serious‐papua‐abuses‐call‐urgent‐aid. [15 August 2022]; Tzay, JFC, Tidball‐Binz, M & Jimenez‐Damary, C 2021, Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons AL IDN 11/2021. Available from: https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26909. [15 August 2022]; Freedom House 2022, Freedom in the World: Indonesia. Available from: https://freedomhouse.org/country/indonesia/freedom‐world/2022. [15 August 2022].
58Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 2022. ‘Indonesia: UN experts sound alarm on serious Papua abuses, call for urgent aid’, United Nations, 1 March. Available From: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press‐releases/2022/03/indonesia‐un‐experts‐sound‐alarm‐serious‐papua‐abuses‐call‐urgent‐aid. [15 August 2022];Tzay, JFC, Tidball‐Binz, M & Jimenez‐Damary, C 2021, Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons AL IDN 11/2021. Available from: https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26909. [15 August 2022]; Blades, J 2021. ‘West Papuans flee from conflict into remote PNG area’, RNZ, 28 October. Available From: https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific‐news/454356/west‐papuans‐flee‐from‐conflict‐into‐remote‐png‐area. [15 August 2022].
59Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre 2023, Country Profile: Indonesia. Available from: https://www.internal‐displacement.org/countries/indonesia. [4 August 2023]; Cazabat, C 2023, Disaster displacement: Indonesia country briefing, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, pp. 12‐15. Available from: https://www.internal‐displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/220304_IDMC_CountryReport_Indonesia.pdf [4 August 2023].
60 Kumala Dewi, LPR and Dartanto, T 2019, ‘Natural disasters and girls vulnerability: is child marriage a coping strategy of economic shocks in Indonesia?’ Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 24, 30. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2018.1546025 [22 September 2020].
61 Rumble, L, Peterman, A, Irdiana, N, Triyana, M and Minnick, E 2018, ‘An empirical exploration of female child marriage determinants in Indonesia. ‘ BMC Public Health, vol. 18, pp. 6‐8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889‐018‐5313‐0 [22 September 2020].
62 As above
63 The National Development Planning Agency 2020, National Strategy on the Prevention of Child Marriage, Kementerian PPN/Bappenas, p. 29. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/sites/unicef.org.indonesia/files/2020‐06/National‐Strategy‐on‐Child‐Marriage‐Prevention‐2020.pdf [28 September 2020].
64 Koalisi 18+ & UNICEF Indonesia 2019, Revealing the Truth of Marriage Dispensation: An analysis of child marriage practice in Tuban, Bogor, and Mamuju Districts, UNICEF, p. 4. Available from: https://ams3.digitaloceanspaces.com/girlsnotbrides‐org/www/documents/UNICEF‐Marriage‐Dispensation‐Research‐Brief.pdf
65 As above
66Law of the Republic of Indonesia Concerning the Crime of Sexual Violence, 2022 (Indonesia) art 10
67Badan Pusat Statistik 2020, Prevention of Child Marriage: Acceleration that cannot wait, UNICEF & PUSKAPA, p. xi. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/media/5021/file/Prevention%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20Report.pdf [20 September 2020].
68Wibawa, T 2019, ‘Indonesia raises minimum age for marriages in a bid to end child brides’, ABC News, 29 September. Available from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019‐09‐29/indonesia‐raises‐minimum‐age‐for‐girls‐to‐marry/11523894 [1 October 2020].
69Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 21 Year 2007 on the Eradication of the Criminal Act of Trafficking in Persons, 2007 (Indonesia) art 2 & 6
70Indonesia, DPMAR 2022, PUTUSAN PERDAGANGAN ORANG, Government of Indonesia. Available from: https://putusan3.mahkamahagung.go.id/direktori/index/kategori/perdagangan‐orang‐1.html. [15 August 2022].
71Australian Aid & ASEAN‐Australia Counter Trafficking 2023, Indonesian Trafficking in Persons Cases: An Analysis of 2019‐2021 Court Decisions. Available from: https://aseanactpartnershiphub.com/wp‐content/uploads/2023/04/FINAL‐English_06_April_2023.pdf. [20 April 2023].
72Witness and Victim Protection Agency 2020, The 2020 LPSK Annual Report, Government of Indonesia, p. 77. Available from: https://aseanactpartnershiphub.com/wp‐content/uploads/2022/03/Annual‐Report‐LPSK‐2020‐ENG_lowres.pdf. [30 March 2022].
73Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 285‐288. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2022/04/337308‐2022‐TIP‐REPORT‐inaccessible.pdf;Marchelin, T 2020. ‘Witness Protection Program Continues Despite Pandemic’, Jakarta Globe, 24 April. Available From: https://jakartaglobe.id/news/witness‐protection‐program‐continues‐despite‐pandemic. [20 April 2023];Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and Child Protection 2021, KEMEN PPPA LUNCURKAN CALL CENTER SAPA 129, Government of Indonesia. Available from: https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/index.php/page/read/29/3085/kemen‐pppa‐luncurkan‐call‐center‐sapa‐129#. [12 March 2021].
74Surtees, R, Zulbahary, T, Daeng Caya, S, Johnson, LS, Di Maio, MA 2018, Identification and Referral of Trafficking Victims in Indonesia. Guidelines for Frontline Responders and Multi‐Disciplinary Teams at the Village Level, Nexus Institute. Available from: https://nexusinstitute.net/room/new‐nexus‐guidelines‐to‐improve‐identification‐referral‐of‐trafficking‐victims‐in‐indonesia‐july‐2018/ [12 March 2021].
75Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2020, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia Country Narrative, United States Department of State, p. 260. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2020/06/2020‐TIP‐Report‐Complete‐062420‐FINAL.pdf [18 August 2020].
76Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 285‐288. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2022/04/337308‐2022‐TIP‐REPORT‐inaccessible.pdf;Johnson, LS, McAdam, M, Surtees, R & Zulbahary, T 2020, Trafficking Victim Protection Frameworks in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam: A Resource for Practitioners, Nexus Institute & Winrock International, p. 41. Available from: https://respect.international/wp‐content/uploads/2021/03/Trafficking‐Victim‐Protection‐Frameworks‐in‐Cambodia‐Indonesia‐Lao‐PDR‐Thailand‐and‐Viet‐Nam‐A‐Resource‐for‐Practitioners‐.pdf [20 April 2023].
77Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2023, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2023‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/indonesia/#:~:text=From%20the%20data%20reported%2C%20the,involving%20an%20unspecified%20form%20of. [7 August 2023]; Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (KOMINFO) 2022. ‘The Task Force Discusses the Urgency of Prevention and Handling of the Crime of Trafficking in Persons’, Government of Indonesia, 28 December. Available From: https://www.kominfo.go.id/content/detail/46599/gugus‐tugas‐bahas‐urgensi‐pencegahan‐dan‐penanganan‐tindak‐pidana‐perdagangan‐orang/0/berita. [15 August 2023].
78Regulation of the President of the Republic of Indonesia Concerning the National Action Plan for Prevention and Handling of the Crime of Trafficking in Persons 2020‐2024, 2023 (Act no. 19 of 2023) (Indonesia)
79Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 285‐288. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2022/04/337308‐2022‐TIP‐REPORT‐inaccessible.pdf.
80Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2023, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2023‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/indonesia/#:~:text=From%20the%20data%20reported%2C%20the,involving%20an%20unspecified%20form%20of. [7 August 2023].
81Bali Process 2018, Declaration of the Seventh Ministerial Conference of the Bali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons and Related Transnational Crime (Bali Process), Bali Process, p. 1. Available from: https://www.baliprocess.net/UserFiles/baliprocess/File/BPMC%207%20Ministerial%20Declaration‐Final(2)(2).pdf [1 October 2020].
82Association of Southeast Asian Nations 2015, ASEAN Convention Against Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, ASEAN. Available from: https://asean.org/asean‐convention‐against‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐especially‐women‐and‐children/ [1 October 2020].
832020, About the Colombo Process, Colombo Process. Available from: https://www.colomboprocess.org/about‐the‐colombo‐process [1 October 2020].
842018, Abu Dhabi Dialogue. Available from: http://abudhabidialogue.org.ae/ [1 October 2020].
85Association of Southeast Asian Nations 2014, ‘The Government of the Union of Myanmar and the Government of Australia Sign the Cooperation Agreement on Anti‐trafficking in Persons,’ ASEAN Secretariat News, 13 March. Available from: https://asean.org/issued‐by‐the‐government‐of‐the‐union‐of‐myanmar‐and‐the‐government‐of‐australia/ [1 October 2020].
86United Arab Emirates National Committee to Combat Human Trafficking 2015, ‘UAE, Indonesia to sign MoU on anti‐human trafficking’, NCCHT, 13 September. Available from: http://www.nccht.gov.ae/default.aspx?PageId=66&EventID=2 [1 October 2020].
87Embassy of the Republic of China (Taiwan) in the Kingdom of Eswatini 2015, ‘Taiwan, Swaziland ink MOU to combat human trafficking’, Taiwan, Republic of China, 24 April. Available from: https://www.roc‐taiwan.org/sz_en/post/1184.html [1 October 2020].
88Republic of Indonesia and Republic of Korea 2010, Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration of the Republic of Indonesia and the Ministry of Employment and Labor of the Republic of Korea on the Sending of Indonesian Workers to the Republic of Korea Under the Employment Permit System, Harvard Bilateral Labor Agreements Dataverse. Available from: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/14YF9K [3 November 2020].
89Republic of the Philippines and Republic of Indonesia 2003, Memorandum of Understanding between the Department of Labor and Employment of the Republic of the Philippines and the Department of Manpower and Transmigration of the Republic of Indonesia Concerning Migrant Workers, Harvard Bilateral Labor Agreements Dataverse. Available from: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/14YF9K [3 November 2020].
90Republic of Indonesia and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 2014, Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Indonesia and the Government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia on the Placement and Protection of Indonesian Domestic Workers, Harvard Bilateral Labor Agreements Dataverse. Available from: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/14YF9K [3 November 2020].
91Republic of Indonesia and United Arab Emirates 2007, Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Indonesia and the Government of the United Arab Emirates in the Field of Manpower, Harvard Bilateral Labor Agreements Dataverse. Available from: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/14YF9K [3 November 2020].
92Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2020, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia Country Narrative, United States Department of State, p. 260. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2020/06/2020‐TIP‐Report‐Complete‐062420‐FINAL.pdf [18 August 2020].
93Law on Protection of Migrant Workers, 2019 (No. 18/2019) (Indonesia) arts 30, 72 and 86
94Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2023, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2023‐trafficking‐in‐persons‐report/indonesia/ [14 August 2023].
95Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations 2019, Observation (CEACR) ‐ adopted 2018, published 108th ILC session (2019) Labour Inspection Convention, 1947 (No. 81) ‐ Indonesia (Ratification: 2004), International Labour Organization. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3958235,102938,Indonesia,2018. [11 November 2020];Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: Indonesia country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 288‐294. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/07/TIP_Report_Final_20210701.pdf. [30 March 2022].
962023. ‘Alleged torturers roam free as Indonesia struggles to bring charges in palm oil slavery case’, Mongabay, 21 June. Available From: https://news.mongabay.com/2023/06/alleged-torturers-roam-free-as-indonesia-struggles-to-bring-charges-in-palm-oil-slavery-case/. [14 August 2023]; Freedom United 2022. ‘Palm oil workers found cages at home of Indonesian politician’, 3 February. Available From: https://www.freedomunited.org/news/palm-oil-workers-found-caged/. [14 August 2023].