Global Slavery Index
Global Slavery Index / COuntry Study

Modern slavery in New Zealand

Estimated number living in modern slavery:

8,000 (1.6

per thousand)

Vulnerability:

8

/100

Government response rating:

54

/100

Population:

4,822,000

GDP per capita (PPP):

44,658

(current international $)

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Overview

New Zealand had among the strongest responses to modern slavery in the Asia Pacific region. This reflects relatively strong criminal justice mechanisms and a range of positive measures introduced since the 2018 Global Slavery Index, including criminalising forced marriage,1 launching a new national action plan against modern slavery,2 and taking steps to address the vulnerability of temporary migrant workers.3 However, there are opportunities for further action, including strengthening survivor support by establishing a national referral mechanism, dedicating resources for specialised support services, and passing legislation to address modern slavery in government and business supply chains. New Zealand is among the least vulnerable countries to modern slavery in Asia and the Pacific, and relatedly, has the third lowest prevalence of modern slavery in the region.

Prevalence

The 2023 Global Slavery Index estimates that on any given day in 2021, there were 8,000 individuals living in modern slavery in New Zealand. This equates to a prevalence of 1.6 people in modern slavery for every thousand people in the country. This places New Zealand among the countries with lowest prevalence both in the region (25 out of 27) and globally (148 out of 160). Despite comparatively low prevalence, several forms of modern slavery are reported in New Zealand, including forced labour, forced sexual exploitation of adults, commercial sexual exploitation of children, and forced marriage.

Forced labour

Forced labour exploitation

Forced labour exploitation has been reported in labour intensive industries in New Zealand such as agriculture, dairy, horticulture, viticulture, construction, hospitality, and domestic service industries.4 In 2020, Joseph Auga Matamata was convicted on 13 charges of slavery and 10 charges of human trafficking for bringing 13 Samoan nationals to New Zealand between 1994 and 2019 on the promise of paid employment, becoming the first person in New Zealand to be convicted on both charges. Matamata arranged visas for the individuals to travel to New Zealand and withheld their passports upon arrival. The majority of survivors were made to perform horticultural work without pay, often working long hours with no days off, and were forced to perform domestic work in Matamata’s home. The offender received a jail sentence of 11 years and was ordered to pay $183,000 in reparations to survivors.5 Meanwhile, Pacific migrants face risks of exploitation in New Zealand’s horticulture and viticulture industries under the Recognised Seasonal Employer (RSE) scheme,6 which enables seasonal workers to stay in New Zealand for up to seven months, or nine months in the case of workers from Tuvalu and Kiribati, to fulfil labour shortages.7

Forced commercial sexual exploitation of adults

Despite reports of trafficking for sexual exploitation among national and migrant women in New Zealand, the government has never reported formally identifying any adult victims of sex trafficking.8 While recent information is limited, adults reportedly experience non-payment of wages, passport withholding, abuse, and restricted movement within sex establishments.9 Migrant women are also at risk of debt-based coercion where they are forced to pay fines or illegal recruitment fees to operators of sex establishments or brokers.10 Earlier reports similarly indicate that migrants have come to New Zealand on false promises of work in restaurants or beauty parlours, only to be forced to repay migration costs by working in sex establishments.11

Commercial sexual exploitation of children 

It has been reported that parents play a significant role in facilitating sexual exploitation of children in New Zealand.12 In 2018, Kasmeer Lata was sentenced to over ten years imprisonment for manipulating her 15-year-old daughter to provide sexual services over an 18-month period. Lata pled guilty to charges of dealing in slaves and sexually exploiting and profiting from the commercial sexual exploitation of an underage person.13 Offences related to the digital exploitation of children have also increased in New Zealand. A two-year investigation led by the Department of Internal Affairs found over one hundred online accounts based in New Zealand that were linked to online child sexual exploitation.14 Despite this, reports suggest that child victims of sex trafficking in New Zealand have not been identified as victims due to a lack of understanding and identification procedures among frontline responders.15

Forced marriage

There is no official collection of data on the prevalence of forced marriage in New Zealand.16 However, there is evidence forced marriage occurs, and may be more visible in communities characterised by ‘conservativism’ and strict social doctrines.17 In a 2018 study that interviewed or analysed case files for 13 survivors of actual or threatened forced marriage in Australia and New Zealand, tradition, culture, faith, family honour, promiscuity and homosexuality, interracial and interfaith relationships, migration, better opportunities, age and sex were cited as reasons for the marriage.18 Participants were engaged to be married between the ages of 12 and 24, and for those that were married, the marriages took place between the ages of 14 and 21. 19

Vulnerability

Governance issues Lack of basic needs Inequality Disenfranchised groups Effects of conflict Overall weighted average
14/100 23/100 11/100 31/100 17/100 8/100

New Zealand is among the least vulnerable countries to modern slavery in the Asia Pacific region and globally. Vulnerability is largely driven by low acceptance of migrants, which manifests in systemic discrimination against temporary migrant workers. Migrant workers are exploited in sectors such as hospitality,20 construction,21 viticulture,22 and horticulture,23 and reportedly experience underpayment, withholding of wages, excessive work hours, passport retention, contract substitution, and health and safety violations.24

A study published by Walk Free in 2020 found that in both Australia and New Zealand, vulnerability among migrant workers stems from a limited understanding of the local context, particularly with regard to domestic and criminal legislation, which may be exacerbated by a lack of formal education and limited understanding of English.25 Unscrupulous employers take advantage of this, imposing excessive working hours, underpayment, poor living conditions, and other exploitative practices.26 In some cases, employers prevent workers from leaving exploitative work by instilling fear of arrest, deportation, or loss of their job or visa status if they were to seek assistance from authorities.27 This abuse is further enabled by tied visa schemes, which render migrants dependent on their employer for their right to work in New Zealand, exacerbating the employer-employee power imbalance.28 For example, the RSE scheme sees workers from Pacific countries migrate to New Zealand to work for a ‘recognised employer’ in the horticulture and viticulture industries.29 Reports of exploitation of migrant workers on the scheme continue to emerge, including poor living conditions, unfair deductions, freedom of association infringements, and restrictions on freedom of movement.30

Exploitation of migrant women on partner-sponsored visas is also a concern.31 Earlier reports indicate that women who travel to New Zealand on a temporary Culturally Arranged Marriage Visitor Visa are said to be at risk of forced marriage, and may additionally face forced labour exploitation in farm or domestic work to ‘repay their debt’ for having their travel to New Zealand arranged.32 Vulnerability for migrants on these visas stems from the dependency on their partner for continued sponsorship.33 Migrant women are also reportedly vulnerable to trafficking for sexual exploitation in the commercial sex industry, where threats of deportation or punishment may be used to prevent them from leaving.34 Loopholes in the decriminalisation of the commercial sex industry perpetuates migrant workers’ vulnerability to forced labour in the sector. For example, although the 2003 Prostitution Reform Act decriminalised the sex work of nationals, non-residents were prohibited from legally working in the commercial sex industry and excluded from the protections the law provided.35

Government response

Survivors of slavery are identified and supported Criminal justice mechanisms National and regional level coordination Risk factors are addressed Government and business supply chains Total
45/100 65/100 50/100 64/100 25/100 54/100

Overall, New Zealand received a government response rating of 54 per cent. New Zealand performed well in terms of its criminal justice response to modern slavery and addressing risk factors. Despite this, the New Zealand government failed to formally identify any victims of modern slavery in the past two years. Although survivors of serious crimes are eligible to receive government-funded services, the government did not allocate any funding dedicated to supporting survivors.36 Further, there is no national referral mechanism in place to refer survivors, and support services were reportedly not easily accessible for those experiencing trafficking for forced labour or sexual exploitation.37

New Zealand had among the strongest criminal justice responses in the region, although some gaps remain. Sections 98 and 98D of the Crimes Act effectively criminalise human trafficking and slavery, yet the law does not recognise that victims should not be treated as criminals for conduct that occurred while under the control of criminals.38 Further, New Zealand has not criminalised forced labour as a distinct crime: although the definition of slavery is broad under the Crimes Act, some forced labour cases would not be covered under section 98.39 However, New Zealand has made a number of legislative improvements in respect to modern slavery. In 2018, the Family Violence (Amendments) Act 2018 amended the Crimes Act to criminalise forced marriage.40 The government also ratified International Labour Organization (ILO) 2014 Forced Labour Protocol in December 2019, though is still yet to ratify the ILO Domestic Workers Convention 2011 (No. 189) and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, 1990.

Section 351 of the Immigration Act criminalises the exploitation of unlawful employees and temporary workers.41 However, independent research conducted as part of the government’s Review into Temporary Migrant Exploitation in 2019 found that exploitation was more widespread in New Zealand than is acknowledged.42 Following the review, in July 2020, the government announced new measures to protect temporary migrants, committing NZD$50 million to the initiatives. Measures implemented included establishing a hotline dedicated to reporting migrant exploitation and introducing a new visa to allow exploited migrants to stay in New Zealand lawfully and seek work with another employer.43 Despite these measures, reports indicate that the labour inspectorate is insufficiently resourced,44 there is a lack of coordination between agencies, and responses to complaints lodged by migrant workers have been inconsistent.45

In a positive step in 2021, the New Zealand government launched the Plan of Action against Forced Labour, People Trafficking and Slavery for the 2020-2025 period. However, the implementation of the Plan has not been fully funded.46 The Plan incorporated activities to “eliminate forced labour, people trafficking and slavery from supply chains”, including improving government procurement practices, building consumer awareness, implementing the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, and to consider introducing legislation on transparency in supply chains.47 In 2022, the government proposed new modern slavery legislation that would require organisations (depending on size) to take action on incidents, disclose steps taken, and undertake due diligence into operations and supply chains.48

Recommendations

Survivors identified and supported

  • Establish a hotline available to receive all reports of modern slavery, not only migrant exploitation.

  • Improve access to support services by allocating funding specifically for assisting victims of modern slavery, including specialised support services, and strengthen funding and resources for civil society organisations to provide support services.

  • Establish a national referral mechanism to ensure all victims are referred to support services.

Criminal justice mechanisms

  • Strengthen existing legislation to protect survivors of exploitation by ensuring they are not treated as criminals for conduct that occurred while under the control of traffickers and criminalise forced labour in line with international standards.

  • Ratify international conventions, including the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families.

National and regional level coordination

  • Fully fund the implementation of the activities within the Plan of Action against Forced Labour, People Trafficking and Slavery 2020-2025.

  • Cooperate with Pacific labour sending countries in establishing effective mechanisms to monitor the recruitment and employment of migrant workers.

Risk factors are addressed

  • Raise the minimum legal age of marriage to 18 for girls and boys with no exemptions.

  • Strengthen protections for temporary migrant workers, including by:

    • increasing monitoring of labour and living conditions,

    • ensuring workers understand their employment rights, and

    • addressing migrant workers’ fears of job loss or deportation, including by ensuring those who report exploitative employers are not unfairly penalised.

  • Amend section 19 of the Prostitution Reform Act to decriminalise work in the commercial sex industry for non-residents.

Government and business supply chains

  • Pass the proposed legislation to address modern slavery in business operations and value chains.

Endnotes

1Crimes Act, 1961 (No. 43) (New Zealand) s.207A
2Ministry of Business Innovation & Employment 2020, Combatting Modern Forms of Slavery ‐ Plan of Action against Forced Labour, People Trafficking and Slavery 2020‐25, New Zealand Government. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/13568‐combatting‐modern‐forms‐of‐slavery‐plan‐of‐action‐against‐forced‐labour‐people‐trafficking‐slavery. [9 August 2021].
3Ministry of Business Innovation & Employment 2021, Addressing temporary migrant worker exploitation, Government of New Zealand. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/immigration‐and‐tourism/immigration/temporary‐migrant‐worker‐exploitation‐review/#:~:text=The%20new%20measures%20include%3A,to%20report%20migrant%20worker%20exploitation. [3 June 2022].
4Stringer, C & Michailova, S 2019, Understanding the Exploitation of Temporary Migrant Workers: A Comparison of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, The University of Auckland Business School, pp. 6‐21. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/7110‐understanding‐the‐exploitation‐of‐temporary‐migrant‐workers‐a‐comparison‐of‐australia‐canada‐new‐zealand‐and‐the‐united‐kingdom. [3 June 2022]; Stringer, C 2016, Worker Exploitation in New Zealand: A Troubling Landscape, The Human Trafficking Research Coalition. Available from: https://www.htrc.nz/_files/ugd/2ffdf5_28e9975b6be2454f8f823c60d1bfdba0.pdf. [3 June 2022]; Walk Free 2020, Murky Waters: A qualitative assessment of modern slavery in the Pacific region, The Minderoo Foundation, pp. 20‐32. Available from: https://www.walkfree.org/reports/murky‐waters/. [15 April 2020].
5Immigration New Zealand 2022, ‘Final closure in long‐running trafficking and slavery case’, 3 March. Available from: https://www.immigration.govt.nz/about‐us/media‐centre/media‐releases/final‐closure‐in‐long‐running‐trafficking‐and‐slavery‐case. [22 June 2022]; Kitchin, T 2020, ‘Joseph Auga Matamata sentenced to 11 years for human trafficking and slavery’, RNZ, 27 July. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/422102/joseph‐auga‐matamata‐sentenced‐to‐11‐years‐for‐human‐trafficking‐and‐slavery. [03 June 2022].
6Walk Free 2020, Murky Waters: A qualitative assessment of modern slavery in the Pacific region, The Minderoo Foundation, pp. 20‐32. Available from: https://www.walkfree.org/reports/murky‐waters/. [15 April 2020]. Fonua, F 2022, ‘RSE scheme needs an overhaul ‐ Green Party MP’, New Zealand Herald, 23 May. Available from: https://www.nzherald.co.nz/talanoa/rse‐scheme‐needs‐an‐overhaul‐green‐party‐mp/NG4VYJXOWN54XWJ5ALU6WT72BE/. [11 August 2022]; RNZ 2022, ‘Reports of exploitation prompt calls for RSE reform’, 21 May. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/audio/player?audio_id=2018842827. [8 August 2022]; Johnston, K 2022, ‘‘Blatant exploitation’: Migrant workers packed in freezing, damp rooms for $150 a week’, Stuff, 8 August. Available from: https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/129496019/blatant‐exploitation‐migrant‐workers‐packed‐in‐freezing‐damp‐rooms‐for‐150‐a‐week. [10 August 2022]; New Zealand Human Rights Commission 2022, The RSE Scheme in Aotearoa New Zealand: A Human Rights Review. Available from: https://hrc‐nz‐resources.s3.ap‐southeast‐2.amazonaws.com/files/6116/7078/5593/The_RSE_Scheme_in_Aotearoa_New_Zealand_A_Human_Rights_Review_HRC_website.pdf. [19 April 2023].
7Immigration New Zealand n.d., Recognised Seasonal Employer (RSE) scheme research, New Zealand Government. Available from: https://www.immigration.govt.nz/about‐us/research‐and‐statistics/research‐reports/recognised‐seasonal‐employer‐rse‐scheme#:~:text=Workers%20must%20meet%20health%20and,during%20any%2011%2Dmonth%20period. [13 March 2023].
8Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: New Zealand Country Narrative United States Department of State, pp. 416‐419. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [03 June 2022].
9As above.
10As above.
11Stringer, C 2016, Worker Exploitation in New Zealand: A Troubling Landscape, The Human Trafficking Research Coalition. Available from: https://www.htrc.nz/_files/ugd/2ffdf5_28e9975b6be2454f8f823c60d1bfdba0.pdf. [3 June 2022].
12Walk Free 2020, Murky Waters: A qualitative assessment of modern slavery in the Pacific region, The Minderoo Foundation, pp. 20‐32. Available from: https://www.walkfree.org/reports/murky‐waters/. [15 April 2020].
13 Chiang, J 2018, ‘Mother who pimped out daughter sentenced to almost seven years’, RNZ, 17 April. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/355327/mother‐who‐pimped‐out‐daughter‐sentenced‐to‐almost‐seven‐years. [10 August 2022]; Scotcher, K 2018, ‘Woman who prostituted daughter has sentence increased’, Radio New Zealand, 19 December. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/top/378644/woman‐who‐prostituted‐daughter‐has‐sentence‐increased. [13 March 2023].
14 McRae, A 2022, ‘Child sex abuse operation: Level of offending much higher than before ‐ investigator’, Stuff, 2 March. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/462608/child‐sex‐abuse‐operation‐level‐of‐offending‐much‐higher‐than‐before‐investigator. [10 August 2022]; RNZ 2022, ‘NZ‐led anti‐child sex abuse operation leads to 46 arrests in Aotearoa’, 2 March. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/462561/nz‐led‐anti‐child‐sex‐abuse‐operation‐leads‐to‐46‐arrests‐in‐aotearoa. [10 August 2022].
15 Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: New Zealand Country Narrative United States Department of State, pp. 416‐419. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [03 June 2022].
16Lyneham, S & Bricknell, S 2018, When saying no is not an option: Forced marriage in Australia and New Zealand, Australian Institute of Criminology. Available from: aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020‐05/rr11.pdf. [03 June 2022].
17As above
18As above
19As above
202018, ‘Restaurant chain exploited, underpaid workers for years’, Radio New Zealand, 16 March. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/352684/restaurant‐chain‐exploited‐underpaid‐workers‐for‐years. [13 March 2023]; Ministry of Business Innovation & Employment 2019, ‘Canterbury bakers ordered to pay $115,000 for exploitation’, Scoop, 14 February. Available from: https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/BU1902/S00312/canterbury‐bakers‐ordered‐to‐pay‐115‐000‐for‐exploitation.htm?from‐mobile=bottom‐link‐01. [13 March 2023].
212018, ‘‘Alarming’ exploitation of Filipino construction workers ‐ report’, Newshub, 26 August. Available from: https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new‐zealand/2018/08/alarming‐exploitation‐of‐filipino‐construction‐workers‐report.html. [13 March 2023].
222019, ‘Marlborough wine business fined $120k for exploiting vulnerable migrant workers’, New Zealand Herald, 9 January. Available from: https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/marlborough‐wine‐business‐fined‐120k‐for‐exploiting‐vulnerable‐migrant‐workers/6HHL6T74N7U35K4XQHWVTUHA7Y/. [13 March 2023].
23Immigration New Zealand 2022, ‘Final closure in long‐running trafficking and slavery case’, 3 March. Available from: https://www.immigration.govt.nz/about‐us/media‐centre/media‐releases/final‐closure‐in‐long‐running‐trafficking‐and‐slavery‐case. [22 June 2022]; Kitchin, T 2020, ‘Joseph Auga Matamata sentenced to 11 years for human trafficking and slavery’, RNZ, 27 July. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/422102/joseph‐auga‐matamata‐sentenced‐to‐11‐years‐for‐human‐trafficking‐and‐slavery. [03 June 2022].
24Stringer, C & Michailova, S 2019, Understanding the Exploitation of Temporary Migrant Workers: A Comparison of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, The University of Auckland Business School, pp. 6‐21. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/7110‐understanding‐the‐exploitation‐of‐temporary‐migrant‐workers‐a‐comparison‐of‐australia‐canada‐new‐zealand‐and‐the‐united‐kingdom. [3 June 2022]; Community Law Centres o Aotearoa 2021, Select Committee Inquiry into Migrant Exploitation: Submission by Community Law Centres o Aotearoa, 3 February 2021, pp. 1‐11. Available from: https://www.parliament.nz/resource/en‐NZ/53SCEW_EVI_116341_EW4987/48e9bc6561f05a14bc50f78cd91454aa75b7ffba. [11 August 2022].
25Walk Free 2020, Murky Waters: A qualitative assessment of modern slavery in the Pacific region, The Minderoo Foundation, pp. 20‐32. Available from: https://www.walkfree.org/reports/murky‐waters/. [15 April 2020].
26As above
27Stringer, C & Michailova, S 2019, Understanding the Exploitation of Temporary Migrant Workers: A Comparison of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, The University of Auckland Business School, pp. 6‐21. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/7110‐understanding‐the‐exploitation‐of‐temporary‐migrant‐workers‐a‐comparison‐of‐australia‐canada‐new‐zealand‐and‐the‐united‐kingdom. [3 June 2022]; Walk Free 2020, Murky Waters: A qualitative assessment of modern slavery in the Pacific region, The Minderoo Foundation, pp. 20‐32. Available from: https://www.walkfree.org/reports/murky‐waters/. [15 April 2020].
28New Zealand Productivity Commission 2022, Immigration – Fit for the future. Final report., p. 55. Available from: https://www.productivity.govt.nz/assets/Inquiries/immigration‐settings/Immigration‐Fit‐for‐the‐future.pdf. [11 August 2022].
29Immigration New Zealand n.d., Information about: Recognised Seasonal Employer Limited Visa. Available from: https://www.immigration.govt.nz/new‐zealand‐visas/apply‐for‐a‐visa/visa‐factsheet/recognised‐seasonal‐employer‐limited‐visa#overview. [11 August 2022]; Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade n.d., Labour Mobility. Available from: https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/trade/free‐trade‐agreements/free‐trade‐agreements‐in‐force/pacer‐plus/labour‐mobility/. [11 August 2022].
30Fonua, F 2022, ‘RSE scheme needs an overhaul ‐ Green Party MP’, New Zealand Herald, 23 May. Available from: https://www.nzherald.co.nz/talanoa/rse‐scheme‐needs‐an‐overhaul‐green‐party‐mp/NG4VYJXOWN54XWJ5ALU6WT72BE/. [11 August 2022]; RNZ 2022, ‘Reports of exploitation prompt calls for RSE reform’, 21 May. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/audio/player?audio_id=2018842827. [8 August 2022]; Johnston, K 2022, ‘‘Blatant exploitation’: Migrant workers packed in freezing, damp rooms for $150 a week’, Stuff, 8 August. Available from: https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/129496019/blatant‐exploitation‐migrant‐workers‐packed‐in‐freezing‐damp‐rooms‐for‐150‐a‐week. [10 August 2022].
31Community Law Centres o Aotearoa 2021, Select Committee Inquiry into Migrant Exploitation: Submission by Community Law Centres o Aotearoa, 3 February 2021, pp. 1‐11. Available from: https://www.parliament.nz/resource/en‐NZ/53SCEW_EVI_116341_EW4987/48e9bc6561f05a14bc50f78cd91454aa75b7ffba. [11 August 2022].
32King, P, Blaiklock, A, Stringer, C, Amaranathan, J & McLean, M 2017, ‘Slavery in New Zealand: What is the role of the health sector?’, New Zealand Medical Journal, vol. 130, no. 1463. Available from: https://journal.nzma.org.nz/journal‐articles/slavery‐in‐new‐zealand‐what‐is‐the‐role‐of‐the‐health‐sector. [3 June 2022].
33Community Law Centres o Aotearoa 2021, Select Committee Inquiry into Migrant Exploitation: Submission by Community Law Centres o Aotearoa, 3 February 2021, pp. 1‐11. Available from: https://www.parliament.nz/resource/en‐NZ/53SCEW_EVI_116341_EW4987/48e9bc6561f05a14bc50f78cd91454aa75b7ffba. [11 August 2022].
34Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: New Zealand Country Narrative United States Department of State, pp. 416‐419. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [03 June 2022]; Stringer, C 2016, Worker Exploitation in New Zealand: A Troubling Landscape, The Human Trafficking Research Coalition. Available from: https://www.htrc.nz/_files/ugd/2ffdf5_28e9975b6be2454f8f823c60d1bfdba0.pdf. [3 June 2022].
35Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2021, Trafficking in Persons Report: New Zealand Country Narrative United States Department of State, pp. 416‐419. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR‐GPA‐upload‐07222021.pdf. [03 June 2022]; Prostitution Reform Act, 2003 (No. 28) (New Zealand) 19 ; King, P, Blaiklock, A, Stringer, C, Amaranathan, J & McLean, M 2017, ‘Slavery in New Zealand: What is the role of the health sector?’, New Zealand Medical Journal, vol. 130, no. 1463. Available from: https://journal.nzma.org.nz/journal‐articles/slavery‐in‐new‐zealand‐what‐is‐the‐role‐of‐the‐health‐sector. [3 June 2022].
36Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: New Zealand country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 411‐414. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2022/04/337308‐2022‐TIP‐REPORT‐inaccessible.pdf. [10 August 2022].
37As above
38Crimes Act, 1961 (No. 43) (New Zealand) 98, 98D
39Stringer, C, Burmester, B & Michailova, S 2021, Toward a Modern Slavery Act in New Zealand ‐ Legislative landscape and steps forward, Centre for Research on Modern Slavery, The University of Auckland Business School. Available from: https://cdn.auckland.ac.nz/assets/business/about/our‐research/research‐institutes‐and‐centres/CReMS/CRMS%20Toward%20a%20Modern%20Slavery%20Act%20v1.1%20WEB.pdf. [10 August 2022].
40Crimes Act, 1961 (No. 43) (New Zealand) s.207A
41Immigration Act, 2009 (No. 51) (New Zealand) 351
42Collins, F & Stringer, C 2019, Temporary Migrant Worker Exploitation in New Zealand, p. 41. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/7109‐temporary‐migrant‐worker‐exploitation‐in‐new‐zealand. [12 August 2022].
43Ministry of Business Innovation & Employment 2021, Addressing temporary migrant worker exploitation, Government of New Zealand. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/immigration‐and‐tourism/immigration/temporary‐migrant‐worker‐exploitation‐review/#:~:text=The%20new%20measures%20include%3A,to%20report%20migrant%20worker%20exploitation. [3 June 2022].
44Stringer, C & Michailova, S 2019, Understanding the Exploitation of Temporary Migrant Workers: A Comparison of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, The University of Auckland Business School, pp. 6‐21. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/7110‐understanding‐the‐exploitation‐of‐temporary‐migrant‐workers‐a‐comparison‐of‐australia‐canada‐new‐zealand‐and‐the‐united‐kingdom. [3 June 2022].
45Community Law Centres o Aotearoa 2021, Select Committee Inquiry into Migrant Exploitation: Submission by Community Law Centres o Aotearoa, 3 February 2021, pp. 1‐11. Available from: https://www.parliament.nz/resource/en‐NZ/53SCEW_EVI_116341_EW4987/48e9bc6561f05a14bc50f78cd91454aa75b7ffba. [11 August 2022]; Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2022, Trafficking in Persons Report: New Zealand country narrative, United States Department of State, pp. 411‐414. Available from: https://www.state.gov/wp‐content/uploads/2022/04/337308‐2022‐TIP‐REPORT‐inaccessible.pdf. [10 August 2022].
46Ministry of Business Innovation & Employment 2020, Combatting Modern Forms of Slavery ‐ Plan of Action against Forced Labour, People Trafficking and Slavery 2020‐25, New Zealand Government. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/13568‐combatting‐modern‐forms‐of‐slavery‐plan‐of‐action‐against‐forced‐labour‐people‐trafficking‐slavery. [9 August 2021].
47As above
48Ministry of Business Innovation & Employment n.d., Consultation on Modern Slavery and Worker Exploitation, New Zealand Government. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/have‐your‐say/modern‐slavery/. [10 August 2022].